Индийский праздник пуджа

Devi Durga killing Mahishasura with her trident riding her vahana lion. Lakshmi and Ganesha flank the left while Saraswati and Kartikeya flank on the right.
Durga Puja
বাগবাজার সার্বজনীন দুর্গোৎসব ২০১৮.jpg

Devi Durga killing Mahishasura with her trident riding her vahana lion. Lakshmi and Ganesha flank the left while Saraswati and Kartikeya flank on the right.

Observed by Bengali, Odia, Maithils,[1][2] and Assamese communities as a socio-cultural and religious festival
Liturgical color   Red
Type Hindu
Celebrations Worshipping Hindu deities, family and other social gatherings, shopping and gift-giving, feasting, pandal visiting, and cultural events
Observances Ceremonial worship of goddess Durga
Begins māsa (amānta) / māsa (purnimānta), pakṣa, tithi
Ends māsa (amānta) / māsa (purnimānta), pakṣa, tithi
Date multi-day
Frequency Annual
Related to Mahalaya, Navaratri, Dussehra

UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage

Unesco Cultural Heritage logo.svg
Country India
Reference unesco.org/durga-puja
Region Kolkata
Inscription history
Inscription 2022 (16th session)
List Representative
Explanatory note

Hindu festival dates

The Hindu calendar is lunisolar but most festival dates are specified using the lunar portion of the calendar. A lunar day is uniquely identified by three calendar elements: māsa (lunar month), pakṣa (lunar fortnight) and tithi (lunar day).

Furthermore, when specifying the masa, one of two traditions are applicable, viz. amānta / pūrṇimānta. Iff a festival falls in the waning phase of the moon, these two traditions identify the same lunar day as falling in two different (but successive) masa.

A lunar year is shorter than a solar year by about eleven days. As a result, most Hindu festivals occur on different days in successive years on the Gregorian calendar.

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Durga Puja (Bengali: দুর্গা পূজা), also known as Durgotsava or Sharodotsava, is an annual Hindu festival originating in the Indian subcontinent which reveres and pays homage to the Hindu goddess Durga and is also celebrated because of Durga’s victory over Mahishasur.[3][4] It is celebrated all over the world by the Hindu Bengali community but it is particularly popular and traditionally celebrated in the Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Tripura, Odisha, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh (eastern parts) and the country of Bangladesh. The festival is observed in the Indian calendar month of Ashwin, which corresponds to September–October in the Gregorian calendar.[5][6] Durga Puja is a ten-day festival,[7][3] of which the last five are of the most significance.[8][6] The puja is performed in homes and public, the latter featuring a temporary stage and structural decorations (known as pandals). The festival is also marked by scripture recitations, performance arts, revelry, gift-giving, family visits, feasting, and public processions.[3][9][10] Durga Puja is an important festival in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism.[11][12][13] Durga Puja in Kolkata has been inscribed on the Intangible cultural heritage list of UNESCO in December of 2021.[14]

As per Hindu scriptures, the festival marks the victory of goddess Durga in her battle against the shape-shifting asura, Mahishasura.[15][16][A] Thus, the festival epitomizes the victory of good over evil, though it is also in part a harvest festival celebrating the goddess as the motherly power behind all of life and creation.[18][19] Durga Puja coincides with Navaratri and Dussehra celebrations observed by other traditions of Hinduism.[20][21][22]

The primary goddess revered during Durga Puja is Durga but celebrations also include other major deities of Hinduism such as Lakshmi (the goddess of wealth and prosperity), Saraswati (the goddess of knowledge and music), Ganesha (the god of good beginnings), and Kartikeya (the god of war). In Bengali and Odia traditions, these deities are considered to be Durga’s children, and Durga Puja is believed to commemorate Durga’s visit to her natal home with her beloved children. The festival is preceded by Mahalaya, which is believed to mark the start of Durga’s journey to her natal home. Primary celebrations begin on the sixth day (Shasthi), on which the goddess is welcomed with rituals. The festival ends on the tenth day (Vijaya Dashami) when devotees embark on a procession carrying the worshipped clay sculpture-idols to a river, or other water body, and immerse them, symbolic of her return to the divine cosmos and her marital home with Shiva in Kailash. Regional and community variations in celebration of the festival and rituals observed exist.

Durga Puja is an old tradition of Hinduism,[23] though its exact origins are unclear. Surviving manuscripts from the 14th—century provide guidelines for Durga Puja, while historical records suggest that royalty and wealthy families were sponsoring major Durga Puja festivities since at least the 16th-century.[24][self-published source?][11] The prominence of Durga Puja increased during the British Raj in the provinces of Bengal, Odisha and Assam.[25][4] However, in modern times, the importance of Durga Puja is more as a social and cultural festival than a religious one, wherever it is observed.

Over the years, Durga Puja has morphed into an inseparable part of Indian culture with a diverse group of people celebrating this festival in their unique way while on tradition.[4]

Names

In West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, and Tripura, Durga Puja is also called Akalbodhan (literally, «untimely awakening of Durga»), Sharadiya pujo («autumnal worship»), Sharodotsab («festival of autumn»), Maha pujo («grand puja»), Maayer pujo («worship of the Mother»),[citation needed] Durga pujo,[26] or merely Puja or Pujo. In Bangladesh, Durga Puja has historically been celebrated as Bhagabati puja.[citation needed] Maa Durga is known as the Goddess of Power (feminine) which represents triumph of Goodness over evil.

Durga Puja is also referred to by the names of related Shakta Hindu festivals such as Navaratri, celebrated on the same days elsewhere in India;[4] such as in Bihar, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Kerala, and Maharashtra,[B] Kullu dussehra, celebrated in Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh;[C] Mysore dussehra celebrated in Mysore, Karnataka;[D] Bommai golu, celebrated in Tamil Nadu; Bommala koluvu, celebrated in Andhra Pradesh;[E] and Bathukamma, celebrated in Telangana.

History and origins

Durga is an ancient deity of Hinduism according to available archeological and textual evidence. However, the origins of Durga Puja are unclear and undocumented. Surviving manuscripts from the 14th-century provide guidelines for Durga Puja, while historical records suggest the royalty and wealthy families to be sponsoring major Durga Puja public festivities, since at least the 16th-century.[11] The 11th or 12th-century Jain text Yasatilaka by Somadeva mentions an annual festival dedicated to a warrior goddess, celebrated by the king and his armed forces, and the description mirrors attributes of Durga Puja.[5][23]

The Dadhimati Mata Temple of Rajasthan preserves a Durga-related inscription from chapter 10 of Devi Mahatmya. The temple inscription has been dated by modern methods to 608 CE.[27][28]

The name Durga, and related terms, appear in Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28, 5.34, 8.27, 8.47, 8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda[29][30][F] A deity named Durgi appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka.[29] While the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks legendary details about her or about Durga Puja that is found in later Hindu literature.[32] A key text associated with Durga Puja is Devi Mahatmya, which is recited during the festival. Durga was likely well established by the time this Hindu text was composed, which scholars variously estimate Durgato date between 400 and 600 CE.[33][34][35] The Devi Mahatmya scripture describes the nature of evil forces symbolised by Mahishasura as shape-shifting, deceptive, and adapting in nature, in form and in strategy to create difficulties and thus achieve their evil ends. Durga calmly understands and counters the evil in order to achieve her solemn goals.[15][16][G]Durga, in her various forms, appears as an independent deity in the Indian texts.[36] Both Yudhisthira and Arjuna characters of the Mahabharata invoke hymns to Durga.[37] She appears in Harivamsa in the form of Vishnu’s eulogy and in Pradyumna’s prayer. The prominent mention of Durga in such epics may have led to her worship.[38][5][39]

A display of sculpture-idols depicting Rama and Narada praying to Durga

The Indian texts with mentions of Durga Puja are inconsistent. A legend found in some versions of the Puranas mentions it to be a spring festival, while the Devi-Bhagavata Purana and two other Shakta Puranas mentions it to be an autumn festival. The Ramayana manuscripts are also inconsistent. Versions of Ramayana found in the north, west, and south of the Indian subcontinent describe Rama to be remembering Surya (the Hindu sun god) before his battle against Ravana, but the Bengali manuscripts of Ramayana, such as the 15th-century manuscript by Krttivasa, mention Rama to be worshipping Durga.[40] As per the legend, Lord Rama worshipped Durga in the autumn to have her blessings before defeating Ravana. While he was preparing for the worship of the goddess, the goddess Durga hid one of the 108 flowers of lotus, very essential for her worship. Having found only 107 of 108 lotuses at the time of the worship, Lord Rama decided to offer one of his eyes in place of that lost flower. When he was about to offer his eye, Goddess Durga appeared and told him that she had only hidden the flower in order to testify his devotion and she was satisfied with it. She blessed Lord Rama and Lord Rama continued with her worship, which is better known by Akaal Bodhan in the context. According to some scholars, the worship of the fierce warrior goddess Durga, and her darker and more violent manifestation Kali, became popular in the Bengal region during and after the medieval era, marked by Muslim invasions and conquests.[41]

The significance of Durga and other goddesses in Hindu culture is stated to have increased after Islamicate armies conquered regions of the Indian subcontinent.[42] According to yet other scholars, the marginalization of Bengali Hindus during the medieval era led to a reassertion of Hindu identity and an emphasis on Durga Puja as a social festival, publicly celebrating the warrior goddess.[43]From the medieval era up to present-day, Durga Puja has been celebrated as a socio-cultural event, while maintaining the roots of religious worship.[44]

Rituals and practices

From top left to bottom right (a) Structure of a Durga sculpture-idol being made at Kumortuli; (b) Lady carrying offerings for the puja; (c) Sandhi puja on the day of Ashtami; (d) Immersion of the sculpture-idol on Vijaya Dashami.

Durga Puja is a ten-day event, of which the last five days involve certain rituals and practices. The festival begins with Mahalaya, a day on which Hindus perform tarpaṇa by offering water and food to their dead ancestors. The day also marks the advent of Durga from her mythological marital home in Kailash.[4][6] The next significant day of the festival is the sixth day (Sashthi), on which devotees welcomes the goddess and festive celebrations are inaugurated. On the seventh day (Saptami), eighth (Ashtami) and ninth (Navami) days, the goddess along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesha, and Kartikeya are revered and these days mark the main days of worship with recitation of scriptures, puja, legends of Durga in Devi Mahatmya, social visits to elaborately decorated and illuminated pandals (temporary structures meant for hosting the puja), among others.[45][46][47]

Durga Puja as a harvest festival

Om you are rice [wheat…], Om you are life, you are the life of the gods, you are our life, your are our internal life, you are long life, you give life, Om the Sun with his rays (….)

 — Hymn to start the Durga Puja,
Translator: David Kinsley[18]

Durga Puja is, in part, a post-monsoon harvest festival observed on the same days in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism as those in its other traditions.[48][49] The practice of including a bundle of nine different plants, called navapatrika, as a symbolism of Durga, is a testament practice to its agricultural importance.[18] The typically selected plants include not only representative important crops, but also non-crops. This probably signifies the Hindu belief that the goddess is «not merely the power inherent in the growth of crops but the power inherent in all vegetation».[18] The festival is a social and public event in the eastern and northeastern states of India, where it dominates religious and socio-cultural life, with temporary pandals built at community squares, roadside shrines, and temples. The festival is also observed by some Shakta Hindus as a private home-based festival.[50]The festival starts at twilight with prayers to Saraswati.[51] She is believed to be another aspect of goddess Durga, and who is the external and internal activity of all existence, in everything and everywhere. This is typically also the day on which the eyes of the deities on the representative clay sculpture-idols are painted, bringing them to a lifelike appearance.[51][52] The day also marks prayers to Ganesha and visit to pandals temples.[53]Day two to five mark the remembrance of the goddess and her manifestations, such as Kumari (goddess of fertility), Mai (mother), Ajima (grandmother), Lakshmi (goddess of wealth) and in some regions as the Saptamatrikas (seven mothers) or Navadurga (nine aspects of Durga).[54][10][55] On the sixth day major festivities and social celebrations start. [4][6] The first nine days overlap with Navaratri festivities in other traditions of Hinduism.[56][22]The puja rituals involve mantras (words manifesting spiritual transformation), shlokas (holy verses), chants and arati, and offerings. These also include Vedic chants and recitations of the Devi Mahatmya text in Sanskrit.[47] The shlokas and mantras praise the divinity of the goddess; according to the shlokas Durga is omnipresent as the embodiment of power, nourishment, memory, forbearance, faith, forgiveness, intellect, wealth, emotions, desires, beauty, satisfaction, righteousness, fulfillment and peace.[57][H] The specific practices vary by region.[61]

The rituals before the puja begins include the following:[62]

  • Paata Puja: The process of making an idol usually begins with ‘Paata Puja’, on the day of the Rath Yatra that usually takes place around July. ‘Paata’ is the wooden frame that forms the base for the idols.[63]
  • Bodhana: Involves rites to awaken and welcome the goddess to be a guest, typically done on the sixth day of the festival. The amorphous sight of the goddess is consecrated into a ghata or noggin while the visible sight is consecrated into the murti or idol. These rituals are known as ghatasthapana and pranapratistha respectively.[64]
  • Adhivasa: Anointing ritual wherein symbolic offerings are made to Durga, with each item representing a remembrance of subtle forms of her. Typically completed on the sixth day as well.[65]
  • Navapatrika snan: Bathing of the navapatrika with holy water done on the seventh day of the festival.[66]
  • Sandhi puja and Ashtami pushpanjali: The eighth day begins with elaborate pushpanjali rituals. The cusp of the ending of the eighth day and beginning of the ninth day is considered to be the moment when per scriptures Durga engaged in a fierce battle against Mahishasura and was attacked by the demons Chanda and Munda. Goddess Chamunda emerged from the third eye of Durga and killed Chanda and Munda at the cusp of Ashtami and Navami, the eighth and ninth days respectively. This moment is marked by the sandhi puja, involving the offering of 108 lotuses and lighting if 108 lamps. It is a forty-eight minutes long ritual commemorating the climax of battle. The rituals are performed in the last 24 minutes of Ashtami and the first 24 minutes of Navami. In some regions, devotees sacrifice an animal such as a buffalo or goat, but in many regions, there isn’t an actual animal sacrifice and a symbolic sacrifice substitutes it. The surrogate effigy is smeared in red vermilion to symbolize the blood spilled.[67] The goddess is then offered food (bhog). Some places also engage in devotional service.[68]

Left: Dhaks, played during the pujo; right: Dhunuchi naach on Navami; bottom: Women taking part in sindoor khela on Vijaya Dashami.

A 47-seconds sample of dhak playing.

  • Homa and bhog: The ninth day of festival is marked with the homa (fire oblation) rituals and bhog. Some places also perform kumari puja on this day.[69]
  • Sindoor khela and immersion: The tenth and last day, called Vijaya dashami is marked by sindoor khela, where women smear sindoor or vermillion on the sculpture-idols and also smear each other with it. This ritual signifies the wishing of a blissful marital life for married women. Historically the ritual has been restricted to married women. The tenth day is the day when Durga emerged victorious against Mahishasura and it ends with a procession where the clay sculpture-idols are ceremoniously taken to a river or coast for immersion rites.[70][71] Following the immersion, Durga is believed to return to her mythological marital home of Kailasha to Shiva and the cosmos in general. People distribute sweets and gifts, visit their friends and family members on the tenth day.[72] Some communities such as those near Varanasi mark the day after Vijaya dashami, called Ekadashi, by visiting a Durga temple.[73]
  • Dhunuchi naach and dhuno pora: Dhunuchi naach involves a dance ritual performed with dhunuchi (incense burner). Drummers called dhakis, carrying large leather-strung dhaks create music, to which people dance either during or not during aarati. Some places, especially home pujas, also observe dhuno pora, a ritual involving married women carrying dhunuchis burning with incense and dried coconuts, on a cloth on their head and hands,

Decorations, sculptures, and stages

From top left to bottom right (a) A craftsperson sculpting the face of the sculpture-idol; (b) Durga Puja pandal decorations in Kolkata; (c) Interior decorations of a pandal; (d) Street lights installed during the festivities.

The process of the creation of clay sculpture-idols (pratima or murti) for the puja, from the collection of clay to the ornamentation is a ceremonial process. Though the festival is observed post-monsoon harvest, the artisans begin making the sculpture-idols months before, during summer. The process begins with prayers to Ganesha and to the perceived divinity in materials such as bamboo frames in which the sculpture-idols are cast.[74]

Durga statue being made

Clay, or alluvial soil, collected from different regions form the base. This choice is a tradition wherein Durga, perceived as the creative energy and material, is believed to be present everywhere and in everything in the universe.[74] In certain traditions in Kolkata, a custom is to include soil samples in the clay mixture for Durga from areas believed to be nishiddho pallis (forbidden territories; territories inhabited by the «social outcasts» such as brothels).[75][76][77]

The clay base is combined with straw, kneaded, and then molded into a cast made from hay and bamboo. This is layered to a fine final shape, cleaned, painted, and polished. A layer of a fiber called jute, mixed in with clay, is also attached to the top to prevent the statue from cracking in the months ahead. The heads of the statues are more complex and are usually made separately.[74] The limbs of the statues are mostly shaped from bundles of straws.[74] Then, starting about August, the local artisans hand-paint the sculpture-idols which are later dressed in clothing, are decorated and bejewelled, and displayed at the puja altars.[74][78]

A man creating a statue in Rangpur, Bangladesh

A man creating a statue in Rangpur, Bangladesh

The procedure for and proportions of the sculpture-idols are described in arts-related Sanskrit texts of Hinduism, such as the Vishvakarma Sashtra.[79]

Environmental impact

A Durga sculpture-idol in the river, post-immersion.

The sculpture-idols for the puja are traditionally made of biodegradable materials such as straw, clay, soil, and wood.[80] In today’s times, brighter colored statues have increased in popularity and have diversified the use of non-biodegradable, cheaper or more colorful substitute synthetic raw materials. Environmental activists have raised concerns about the paint used to produce the statue, stating that the heavy metals in these paints pollute rivers when the statues are immersed at the end of the Durga festival.[80]

Brighter colors that are also biodegradable and eco-friendly, as well as the traditional natural colors, are typically more expensive compared to the non biodegradable paints.[81] The Indian state of West Bengal has banned the use of hazardous paints, and various state government have started distributing lead-free paints to artisans at no cost to prevent pollution.[82]

Animal sacrifice, symbolic sacrifice

Sacrifice of a buffalo during Durga Puja, in Assam.

Shakta Hindu communities mark the slaying of Mahishasura and the victory of Durga with a symbolic or actual sacrifice. Most communities prefer symbolic sacrifice, where a statue of the asura is made of flour or equivalent, is immolated and smeared with vermilion, symbolic of the blood that had spilled during the battle.[67][83] Other substitutes include a vegetable or a sweet dish considered equivalent to the animal.[84] In certain instances, devotees consider animal sacrifice distasteful, and practice alternate means of expressing devotion while respecting the views of others in their tradition.[85]

In communities performing actual sacrifice, an animal is sacrificed, mainly at temples.[86] In Nepal, West Bengal, Odisha and Assam, animal sacrifices are performed at Shakta temples to commemorate the legend of Durga slaying Mahishasura.[87] This involves slaying of a fowl, goat or a male water-buffalo. This practice is rare among Hindus outside the regions of Bengal, Odisha and Assam.[88] In these regions, the festival season is primarily when significant animal sacrifices are observed.[88]

The Rajputs of Rajasthan worship their weapons and horses in the related festival of Navaratri, and some historically observed the sacrifice of a goat, a practice that continues in some places.[89][90] The sacrifice ritual, supervised he the priest, requires slaying of the animal with a single stroke. In the past this ritual was considered a rite of passage into manhood and readiness as a warrior.[91] The Kuldevi (clan deity) among these Rajput communities is a warrior goddess, with local legends tracing reverence for her during Rajput-Muslim wars.[92][better source needed]

Pandals and theme-based pujas

Two theme-based pandals in Kolkata.

Months before the start of Durga Puja, youth members of the community collect funds and donations, engage priests and artisans, buy votive materials and help build pandals centered around a theme, which has rose to prominence in recent years. Such themes have included sex work,[93] celebration of humanity,[94] marginalization of queer persons and transgender persons,[95] folk culture,[96] celebration of cinema,[97] womanhood,[96] pro-environment themes,[98] while others have chosen metaphorical themes such as celebration of maati (literally, soil or ash) and «finding one’s own light».[99] Pandals have also been replicated on existing temples, structures, and monuments[100][101] and yet others have been made of elements such as metal scraps,[102] nails,[103] and turmeric[104] among others. Durga Puja pandals have also been centered around themes to acknowledge political events such as the 2019 Balakot airstrike and to protest against the National Register of Citizens of India.[105][106]

. The budget required for such theme-based pujas is significantly higher than traditional pujas. For such theme-based pujas, the preparations and the building of pandals are a significant arts-related economic activity, often attracting major sponsors.[107] Such commercialized pujas attract crowds of visitors. The growth of competitiveness in theme-based pandals has escalated costs and scale of Durga Puja in eastern states of India. Some segments of the society criticize the billboards, the economic competition, and seek return to basics.[108] The competition takes many forms, such as the height of statue. In 2015, an 88-foot statue of Durga in Kolkata’s Deshapriya Park attracted numerous devotees, with some estimates placing visitors at one million.[109][110]

Regional celebrations and observances

Durga Puja at Bagbajar, Kolkata, example of a sarvajanin barowari puja.

There exists variation in worship practices and rituals associated with Durga Puja, as is the case with other Hindu festivals, in the Indian subcontinent.[111] Hinduism accepts flexibility and leaves the set of practices to the choice of the individuals concerned. Different localized rituals may be observed regionally, with these variations accepted across temples, pandals, and within families.[112]

The festival is most commonly associated with Bengali Hindus, and with the community having variability and differences in practices. There may exist differences of practice between the puja of theme-based Pandals, family pujas (with puja of erstwhile aristocrat families known as bonedi puja), and community pujas (known as barowari pujas ) of neighbourhoods or apartments.[112]

The rituals of the puja also varies from being Vedic, Puranic, or Tantric, or a combination of these.[112] The Bengali Durga Puja rituals typically combine all three. The non-Bengali Durga Puja rituals tend to be essentially Vedic (srauta) in nature but they too incorporate esoteric elements making the puja an example of a culmination of Vedic-Tantric practices.[113]

Historical evidence suggests that the Durga Puja has evolved over time, becoming more elaborate, social, and creative. The festival had earlier been a domestic puja, a form of practice that still remains popular. But it had also come to be celebrated in the sarvajanin (public) form, where communities get together, pool their resources and efforts to set up pandals and illuminations, and celebrate the event as a «mega-show to share».[114] The origins of this variation are unclear, with some sources suggesting a family in Kolkata reviving such celebration in 1411 CE. While other set of sources suggest that a Bengali landlord, named Kamsanarayan, held a mega-show puja in late 16th-century Bengal.[114] Yet, this festival of Bengal is likely much older with the discovery of 11th and 12th-century Durga Puja manual manuscripts such as Durgotsavaviveka, Durgotsava Prayoga, Vasantaviveka and Kalaviveka.[115] The rituals associated with the Durga Puja migrated to other regions from Bengal, such as in Varanasi, a city that has historically attracted sponsorship from Hindus from various parts of the Indian subcontinent including Bengal.[116] In contemporary India, Durga Puja is celebrated in various styles and forms.[117]

Left: Durga Puja festivities by dancers and musicians in Calcutta, circa 1830s-40s; Right: Patna style painting of Durga Puja, circa 1809.

Durga Puja is a widely celebrated festival in the Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh (eastern parts), Assam, and Odisha.[118] It is celebrated over a five-day period. Streets are decked up with festive lights, loudspeakers play festive songs as well as recitation of hymns and chants by priests, and pandals are erected by communities. The roads become overcrowded with revellers, devotees, and pandal-hoppers visiting the pandals on puja days. It often creates chaotic traffic conditions. Shops, eateries, and restaurants stay open all night; fairs are also set up and cultural programmes are held.[119] People form organizing committees, which plan and oversee the pandal during the festivities. Today, Durga Puja has turned into a consumerist social carnival, a major public spectacle and a major arts event riding on the wave of commercialisation, corporate sponsorship, and craze for award-winning. For private domestic pujas, families dedicate an area of their homes, known as thakur dalan, for Durga Puja where the sculpture-idols for worship is placed and decorated with home-dyed fabric, sola ornamentations, and gold and silver foil decorations. Elaborate rituals like arati are performed and prasad is distributed after being offered to the deities. As a tradition, married daughters visit their parents and celebrate the Durga Puja with them, a symbolism alluding to Durga who is popularly believed to return to her natal home during the puja.[120]

Durga Puja is also a gift-giving and shopping season for communities celebrating it, with people buying gifts for not only family members but also for close relatives and friends. New clothes are the traditional gift, and people wear them to go out together during Durga Puja. During puja holidays, people may also go to places of tourist attractions while others return home to spend Durga Puja with their family.[120] It’s a common trend amongst youngsters and even those who are older to go pandal-hopping and enjoy the celebrations.[121]

The organising committees of each puja pandal hires a purohita (priest) who performs the puja rituals on behalf of the community.[122] For the priests, Durga Puja is a time of activity wherein he pursues the timely completion of Vedic-Puranic-Tantric ritual sequences to make various offerings and perform fire oblations, in full public view, while the socio-cultural festivities occur in parallel.[123] The complex puja rituals include periods of accurate and melodic scripture recitation. The puja involves crowds of people visiting the pandals, with smaller groups visiting family pujas, to witness the celebrations.[124] On the last day, the sculpture-idols are carried out in immersion processions across Bengal, following which they are ritually immersed into rivers or other waterbodies. The immersion ceremony continues till a couple of days after the last day of puja.[125]

Immersion procession for Durga Puja, with the sculpture-idols being carried by people on bamboo poles.

According to some scholars, the ritual of immersing the Durga sculpture-idol into the river attracted the attention of colonial era travelers to the Bengal region from Europe, such as Garcin de Tassy and Emma Roberts. In 1831, Tassy reported that similar rituals were annually observed by the Muslim community in Bengal. Shia Muslims observed Muharram over ten days, taking out processions in memory of the martyrdom of Imam Husayn ibn Ali, and then cast a memorial Imam’s cenotaph into a river on the tenth day. Tassy further stated that the Muslim rituals included the same offerings at the annual observation of Muharram that the Hindu rituals included during Durga Puja.[126] According to yet other scholars, the ritual of immersion in water by Hindus for Durga Puja in Bengal and Ganesh Chaturthi in the western states of India, may have grown because members of the Hindu community attempted to create a competing procession and immersion ritual to that of Muharram, allowed by the colonial British Indian government in the 19th and early 20th-centuries.[127]

Durga Puja in New Delhi, 2014.

In Maharashtra, the city of Nashik and other places such as CIDCO, Rajeevnagar, Panchavati, and Mahatmanagar host Durga Puja celebrations.[citation needed] While in Delhi, the first community Durga Puja was organized near Kashmiri Gate by a group of expatriate Bengalis, in 1910, a year before Delhi was declared the capital of British India. This group came to be the Delhi Durga Puja Samiti, popularly known as the Kashmere Gate Durga Puja.[128] The Durga Puja at Timarpur, Delhi was started in the year 1914.[129] In 2011, over 800 Durga Pujas were held in Delhi, with a few hundred more in Gurgaon and NOIDA.[130]

Sculpture-idols in Cuttack, Odisha for Durga Puja, bedecked with jewellery.

In Odisha, Durga Puja is the most important festival of the people of the state. Durga Puja is a very important festival for Odias, during the 4 days of the festival, the streets of the city turns into a wonderland throughout the state, people welcome the arrival of their maa by rejoicing themselves, eating tasty food, wearing new clothes, seeing different pandals across the city, family gathering and gift givings. In 2019, ninety-seven pandals in Cuttack alone, Odisha were reported to bedeck respective sculpture-idols with silver jewelry for Durga Puja celebrations; such club of pandals termed regionally as Chandi Medha. The state capital is famous for the modern themes and creativity In the pandals, while the Western part of the state has a more retro decoration theme to the pandal. In the northern parts of the state particularly Balasore, Durga Puja is celebrated with much fervor and the Odia diaspora abroad especially in Australia, which originates 95% from the district of Balasore celebrates the puja in the same manner which is done back home in Balasore.[131] In September 2019, 160 pandals were reported to be hosting Durga Puja in Cuttack.[132][133]

While in Tripura there were over 2,500 community Durga Puja celebrations in 2013. Durga Puja has been started at the Durgabari temple, in Agartala by King Radha Kishore Manikya Bahadur.[134][135]

Significance

Beyond being an art festival and a socio-religious event, Durga Puja has also been a political event with regional and national political parties having sponsored Durga Puja celebrations. In 2019, West Bengal Chief Minister, Mamata Banerjee announced a grant of 25,000 to all community-organised Durga Pujas in the state.[136]

In 2019, Kolkata’s Durga Puja was nominated by the Indian government for the 2020 UNESCO Representative list of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[137][138] Durga Puja also stands to be politically and economically significant. The committees organising Durga Puja in Kolkata have close links to politicians.[94] Politicians patronize the festival by making donations or helping raise money for funding of community pujas, or by marking their presence at puja events and inaugurations.[94] The grant of 25,000 to puja organizing committees in West Bengal by a debt-ridden state government was reported to cost a budget a 70 crores.[139] The state government also announced an additional grant of 5,000 to puja organizing committees fully managed by women alone, while also announcing a twenty-five percent concession on total electricity bills for puja pandal.[139] The government had made a grant of 10,000 each to more than 20,000 puja organizing committees in the state in 2018.[139]

A 2013 report by ASSOCHAM states West Bengal’s Durga Puja to be a 25,000 crores worth economy, expected to grow at the compound annual growth rate of about 35 per-cent.[140] Economic slowdowns in India, such as in 2019, have hence affected corporate sponsorships and puja budgets for public celebrations.[141] In August 2019, the Income Tax Department of India had allegedly sent notices to various Durga Puja organizing committees in West Bengal, against which the ruling party of the state, All India Trinamool Congress (AITMC) protested.[142][143] The Central Board of Direct Taxes denied sending any such notices,[144] to which AITMC politician Madan Mitra is reported to have said that the intention may have been to enquire if tax deducted at source had been deducted on payments to vendors for organizing community pujas.[94]

Economic significance

Durga Puja directly affects the economy. In 2022, the economy of West Bengal was estimated to get a boost of 50,000 crore rupees.[145] The annual GDP of West Bengal was expected to be expanded by 20-30 percent that year.[146][147] The factors responsible for this economic boost are mainly the increase of earning in transport, tourism, industry, business, shopping and other fields. The Kolkata Metro Railway recorded an earning of ₹6 crore in just five days of Durga Puja in 2022.[148][149]

The famous puja pandals get sponsorship from renowned companies and labels. Usually, the dress and jewelries of the idols, the stuffs used to make the pandals, decorations, lightings are sponsored.

Durga Puja plays a great significance in the living of certain peoples. The kumors, those who make the idols with clay and also makes other clayey products, earns lakhs of rupees by selling a single set of Durga idol of average size. Hence, it makes their annual income because idols used in other festivals are a lot more cheaper. Other professions that receive the majority of their annual income are dhaaki (plays dhaak), priest and other small homecrafts. It is assumed that these profession based small classes would become smaller in population if Durga Puja was absent.

Media attention

A painting by Gaganendranath Tagore depicting Durga Puja immersion.

Durga Puja has been a theme in various artistic works such as movies, paintings, and literature. Shown here is Pratima Visarjan by Gaganendranath Tagore, depicting a Durga Puja immersion procession. This painting inspired the colour scheme of the Indian film, Kahaani.

The day of Mahalaya is marked by the Bengali community with Mahishasuramardini — a two-hours long All India Radio program — that has been popular in the Bengali community since the 1950s. While in earlier days it used to be recorded live, a pre-recorded version has come to be broadcast in recent decades. Bengalis traditionally wake up at four in the morning on Mahalaya to listen to the radio show, primarily involving recitations of chants and hymns from Devi Mahatmyam (or Chandi Path) by Birendra Krishna Bhadra and Pankaj Kumar Mullick. The show also features various devotional melodies.[150]

Dramas enacting the legend of Durga slaying Mahishasura are telecasted on the television. Radio and television channels also air other festive shows,[citation needed] while Bengali and Odia magazines publish special editions for the puja known as Pujabarshiki (Annual Puja Edition) or Sharadiya Sankhya (Autumnal Volume). These contain works of writers, both established and upcoming, and are more voluminous than the regular issues. Some notable examples of such magazines in Bengali are Anandamela, Shuktara, Desh, Sananda, Nabakallol, and Bartaman.[151]

Celebrations outside India

Left: Durga Puja in Germany, in 2009; right: Durga Puja in the Netherlands, in 2017.

Durga Puja is celebrated commonly by Bangladesh’s Hindu community. Some Bengali Muslims also take part in the festivities.[152] In Dhaka, the Dhakeshwari Temple puja attracts visitors and devotees.[153] In Nepal, the festivities are celebrated as Dashain.[3][9]

Beyond south Asia, Durga Puja is organized by Bengali communities in the United States of America.[154] Durga Puja celebrations have also been started in Hong Kong by the Bengali diaspora.[155]

In Canada, Bengali Hindu communities both from Bangladesh and West Bengal, India organise several Durga Pujas.[156] Greater Toronto Area has the most number of Durga Puja celebration venues organized by different Bengali cultural groups such as Bangladesh Canada Hindu Cultural Society (BCHCS), Bongo Poribar Sociocultural Association etc.[156] City of Toronto has a dedicated Durga Temple named Toronto Durgabari where Durga Puja is organized along with other Hindu celebrations. Most of the puja venues of Toronto area try to arrange the puja in best possible way to follow the lunar calendar and timings.

Celebrations are also organized in Europe. The sculpture-idols are shipped from India and stored in warehouses to be re-used over the years.[157] According to BBC News, for community celebrations in London in 2006, these «idols, belonging to a tableau measuring 18ft by 20ft, were made from clay, straw and vegetable dyes». At the end of the puja, the sculpture-idols were immersed in River Thames for the first time in 2006, after «the community was allowed to give a traditional send-off to the deities by London’s port authorities».[157] In Germany, the puja is celebrated in Cologne,[158] and other cities. In Switzerland,[159] puja in Baden, Aargau has been celebrated since 2003. In Sweden, the puja is celebrated in cities such as Stockholm and Helsingborg.[160] In the Netherlands, the puja is celebrated in places such as Amstelveen, Eindhoven, and Voorschoten. In Japan, Durga Puja is celebrated in Tokyo with much fanfare.[161][162]

Footnotes

  1. ^ In the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, many of the stories about obstacles and battles have been considered as metaphors for the divine and demonic within each human being, with liberation being the state of self-understanding whereby a virtuous nature & society emerging victorious over the vicious.[17]
  2. ^ Navratri Puja, Durga-puja.org
  3. ^ Kullu Dussehra, Durga-puja.org
  4. ^ Mysore Dussehra, Durga-puja.org
  5. ^ «Bommai-kolu», Durga-puja.org
  6. ^ Example Sanskrit original: «अहन्निन्द्रो अदहदग्निरिन्दो पुरा दस्यून्मध्यंदिनादभीके ।
    दुर्गे दुरोणे क्रत्वा न यातां पुरू सहस्रा शर्वा नि बर्हीत्॥३॥ – Rigveda 4.28.8, Wikisource It appears in Khila (appendix, supplementary) text to Rigveda 10.127, 4th Adhyaya, per J. Scheftelowitz.[31]
  7. ^ In the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, many of the stories about obstacles and battles have been considered as metaphors for the divine and demonic within each human being, with liberation being the state of self-understanding whereby a virtuous nature and society emerging victorious over the vicious.[17]
  8. ^ Various versions of Devi mantra exist.[58] Examples include: [a] «We know the Great Goddess. We make a meditation of the goddess Durga. May that Goddess guide us on the right path.» (Durga Gayatri Mantra, recited at many stages of Durga Puja);[59] [b] Hrim! O blessed goddess Durga, come here, stay here, stay here, take up residence here, accept my worship. (Durga Avahana Mantra);[60] etc.

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Further reading

  • Banerjee, Sudeshna (2004). Durga Puja: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow. Rupa and Co, Calcutta. ISBN 81-291-0547-0.
  • Bhattacharyya, BK (6 October 2008). «Earthen sculptures of Goddess Durga». The Assam Tribune. Archived from the original on 1 April 2012.
  • Dutta, Krishna. (2003) Calcutta: a cultural and literary history Archived 27 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Signal Books, Oxford, United Kingdom. ISBN 1-902669-59-2.
  • Muthukumaraswamy, M.D.; Kaushal, Molly (2004). Folklore, public sphere, and civil society. National Folklore Support Centre(India). ISBN 978-81-901481-4-6. Archived from the original on 27 April 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2015. (Chapter 6: «Of Public Sphere and Sacred Space: Origins of Community Durga Puja in Bengal.»)
  • Saraswati, Swami Satyananda (2001). Durga Puja Beginner, Devi Mandir. ISBN 1-887472-89-4.

External links

  • Durga Puja at Curlie
  • «Durga Puja — The Hindu Festival, Durga-Puja.org». www.durga-puja.org. Retrieved 25 September 2022.
Durga Puja
বাগবাজার সার্বজনীন দুর্গোৎসব ২০১৮.jpg

Devi Durga killing Mahishasura with her trident riding her vahana lion. Lakshmi and Ganesha flank the left while Saraswati and Kartikeya flank on the right.

Observed by Bengali, Odia, Maithils,[1][2] and Assamese communities as a socio-cultural and religious festival
Liturgical color   Red
Type Hindu
Celebrations Worshipping Hindu deities, family and other social gatherings, shopping and gift-giving, feasting, pandal visiting, and cultural events
Observances Ceremonial worship of goddess Durga
Begins māsa (amānta) / māsa (purnimānta), pakṣa, tithi
Ends māsa (amānta) / māsa (purnimānta), pakṣa, tithi
Date multi-day
Frequency Annual
Related to Mahalaya, Navaratri, Dussehra

UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage

Unesco Cultural Heritage logo.svg
Country India
Reference unesco.org/durga-puja
Region Kolkata
Inscription history
Inscription 2022 (16th session)
List Representative
Explanatory note

Hindu festival dates

The Hindu calendar is lunisolar but most festival dates are specified using the lunar portion of the calendar. A lunar day is uniquely identified by three calendar elements: māsa (lunar month), pakṣa (lunar fortnight) and tithi (lunar day).

Furthermore, when specifying the masa, one of two traditions are applicable, viz. amānta / pūrṇimānta. Iff a festival falls in the waning phase of the moon, these two traditions identify the same lunar day as falling in two different (but successive) masa.

A lunar year is shorter than a solar year by about eleven days. As a result, most Hindu festivals occur on different days in successive years on the Gregorian calendar.

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Durga Puja (Bengali: দুর্গা পূজা), also known as Durgotsava or Sharodotsava, is an annual Hindu festival originating in the Indian subcontinent which reveres and pays homage to the Hindu goddess Durga and is also celebrated because of Durga’s victory over Mahishasur.[3][4] It is celebrated all over the world by the Hindu Bengali community but it is particularly popular and traditionally celebrated in the Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Tripura, Odisha, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh (eastern parts) and the country of Bangladesh. The festival is observed in the Indian calendar month of Ashwin, which corresponds to September–October in the Gregorian calendar.[5][6] Durga Puja is a ten-day festival,[7][3] of which the last five are of the most significance.[8][6] The puja is performed in homes and public, the latter featuring a temporary stage and structural decorations (known as pandals). The festival is also marked by scripture recitations, performance arts, revelry, gift-giving, family visits, feasting, and public processions.[3][9][10] Durga Puja is an important festival in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism.[11][12][13] Durga Puja in Kolkata has been inscribed on the Intangible cultural heritage list of UNESCO in December of 2021.[14]

As per Hindu scriptures, the festival marks the victory of goddess Durga in her battle against the shape-shifting asura, Mahishasura.[15][16][A] Thus, the festival epitomizes the victory of good over evil, though it is also in part a harvest festival celebrating the goddess as the motherly power behind all of life and creation.[18][19] Durga Puja coincides with Navaratri and Dussehra celebrations observed by other traditions of Hinduism.[20][21][22]

The primary goddess revered during Durga Puja is Durga but celebrations also include other major deities of Hinduism such as Lakshmi (the goddess of wealth and prosperity), Saraswati (the goddess of knowledge and music), Ganesha (the god of good beginnings), and Kartikeya (the god of war). In Bengali and Odia traditions, these deities are considered to be Durga’s children, and Durga Puja is believed to commemorate Durga’s visit to her natal home with her beloved children. The festival is preceded by Mahalaya, which is believed to mark the start of Durga’s journey to her natal home. Primary celebrations begin on the sixth day (Shasthi), on which the goddess is welcomed with rituals. The festival ends on the tenth day (Vijaya Dashami) when devotees embark on a procession carrying the worshipped clay sculpture-idols to a river, or other water body, and immerse them, symbolic of her return to the divine cosmos and her marital home with Shiva in Kailash. Regional and community variations in celebration of the festival and rituals observed exist.

Durga Puja is an old tradition of Hinduism,[23] though its exact origins are unclear. Surviving manuscripts from the 14th—century provide guidelines for Durga Puja, while historical records suggest that royalty and wealthy families were sponsoring major Durga Puja festivities since at least the 16th-century.[24][self-published source?][11] The prominence of Durga Puja increased during the British Raj in the provinces of Bengal, Odisha and Assam.[25][4] However, in modern times, the importance of Durga Puja is more as a social and cultural festival than a religious one, wherever it is observed.

Over the years, Durga Puja has morphed into an inseparable part of Indian culture with a diverse group of people celebrating this festival in their unique way while on tradition.[4]

Names

In West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, and Tripura, Durga Puja is also called Akalbodhan (literally, «untimely awakening of Durga»), Sharadiya pujo («autumnal worship»), Sharodotsab («festival of autumn»), Maha pujo («grand puja»), Maayer pujo («worship of the Mother»),[citation needed] Durga pujo,[26] or merely Puja or Pujo. In Bangladesh, Durga Puja has historically been celebrated as Bhagabati puja.[citation needed] Maa Durga is known as the Goddess of Power (feminine) which represents triumph of Goodness over evil.

Durga Puja is also referred to by the names of related Shakta Hindu festivals such as Navaratri, celebrated on the same days elsewhere in India;[4] such as in Bihar, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Kerala, and Maharashtra,[B] Kullu dussehra, celebrated in Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh;[C] Mysore dussehra celebrated in Mysore, Karnataka;[D] Bommai golu, celebrated in Tamil Nadu; Bommala koluvu, celebrated in Andhra Pradesh;[E] and Bathukamma, celebrated in Telangana.

History and origins

Durga is an ancient deity of Hinduism according to available archeological and textual evidence. However, the origins of Durga Puja are unclear and undocumented. Surviving manuscripts from the 14th-century provide guidelines for Durga Puja, while historical records suggest the royalty and wealthy families to be sponsoring major Durga Puja public festivities, since at least the 16th-century.[11] The 11th or 12th-century Jain text Yasatilaka by Somadeva mentions an annual festival dedicated to a warrior goddess, celebrated by the king and his armed forces, and the description mirrors attributes of Durga Puja.[5][23]

The Dadhimati Mata Temple of Rajasthan preserves a Durga-related inscription from chapter 10 of Devi Mahatmya. The temple inscription has been dated by modern methods to 608 CE.[27][28]

The name Durga, and related terms, appear in Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28, 5.34, 8.27, 8.47, 8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda[29][30][F] A deity named Durgi appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka.[29] While the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks legendary details about her or about Durga Puja that is found in later Hindu literature.[32] A key text associated with Durga Puja is Devi Mahatmya, which is recited during the festival. Durga was likely well established by the time this Hindu text was composed, which scholars variously estimate Durgato date between 400 and 600 CE.[33][34][35] The Devi Mahatmya scripture describes the nature of evil forces symbolised by Mahishasura as shape-shifting, deceptive, and adapting in nature, in form and in strategy to create difficulties and thus achieve their evil ends. Durga calmly understands and counters the evil in order to achieve her solemn goals.[15][16][G]Durga, in her various forms, appears as an independent deity in the Indian texts.[36] Both Yudhisthira and Arjuna characters of the Mahabharata invoke hymns to Durga.[37] She appears in Harivamsa in the form of Vishnu’s eulogy and in Pradyumna’s prayer. The prominent mention of Durga in such epics may have led to her worship.[38][5][39]

A display of sculpture-idols depicting Rama and Narada praying to Durga

The Indian texts with mentions of Durga Puja are inconsistent. A legend found in some versions of the Puranas mentions it to be a spring festival, while the Devi-Bhagavata Purana and two other Shakta Puranas mentions it to be an autumn festival. The Ramayana manuscripts are also inconsistent. Versions of Ramayana found in the north, west, and south of the Indian subcontinent describe Rama to be remembering Surya (the Hindu sun god) before his battle against Ravana, but the Bengali manuscripts of Ramayana, such as the 15th-century manuscript by Krttivasa, mention Rama to be worshipping Durga.[40] As per the legend, Lord Rama worshipped Durga in the autumn to have her blessings before defeating Ravana. While he was preparing for the worship of the goddess, the goddess Durga hid one of the 108 flowers of lotus, very essential for her worship. Having found only 107 of 108 lotuses at the time of the worship, Lord Rama decided to offer one of his eyes in place of that lost flower. When he was about to offer his eye, Goddess Durga appeared and told him that she had only hidden the flower in order to testify his devotion and she was satisfied with it. She blessed Lord Rama and Lord Rama continued with her worship, which is better known by Akaal Bodhan in the context. According to some scholars, the worship of the fierce warrior goddess Durga, and her darker and more violent manifestation Kali, became popular in the Bengal region during and after the medieval era, marked by Muslim invasions and conquests.[41]

The significance of Durga and other goddesses in Hindu culture is stated to have increased after Islamicate armies conquered regions of the Indian subcontinent.[42] According to yet other scholars, the marginalization of Bengali Hindus during the medieval era led to a reassertion of Hindu identity and an emphasis on Durga Puja as a social festival, publicly celebrating the warrior goddess.[43]From the medieval era up to present-day, Durga Puja has been celebrated as a socio-cultural event, while maintaining the roots of religious worship.[44]

Rituals and practices

From top left to bottom right (a) Structure of a Durga sculpture-idol being made at Kumortuli; (b) Lady carrying offerings for the puja; (c) Sandhi puja on the day of Ashtami; (d) Immersion of the sculpture-idol on Vijaya Dashami.

Durga Puja is a ten-day event, of which the last five days involve certain rituals and practices. The festival begins with Mahalaya, a day on which Hindus perform tarpaṇa by offering water and food to their dead ancestors. The day also marks the advent of Durga from her mythological marital home in Kailash.[4][6] The next significant day of the festival is the sixth day (Sashthi), on which devotees welcomes the goddess and festive celebrations are inaugurated. On the seventh day (Saptami), eighth (Ashtami) and ninth (Navami) days, the goddess along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesha, and Kartikeya are revered and these days mark the main days of worship with recitation of scriptures, puja, legends of Durga in Devi Mahatmya, social visits to elaborately decorated and illuminated pandals (temporary structures meant for hosting the puja), among others.[45][46][47]

Durga Puja as a harvest festival

Om you are rice [wheat…], Om you are life, you are the life of the gods, you are our life, your are our internal life, you are long life, you give life, Om the Sun with his rays (….)

 — Hymn to start the Durga Puja,
Translator: David Kinsley[18]

Durga Puja is, in part, a post-monsoon harvest festival observed on the same days in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism as those in its other traditions.[48][49] The practice of including a bundle of nine different plants, called navapatrika, as a symbolism of Durga, is a testament practice to its agricultural importance.[18] The typically selected plants include not only representative important crops, but also non-crops. This probably signifies the Hindu belief that the goddess is «not merely the power inherent in the growth of crops but the power inherent in all vegetation».[18] The festival is a social and public event in the eastern and northeastern states of India, where it dominates religious and socio-cultural life, with temporary pandals built at community squares, roadside shrines, and temples. The festival is also observed by some Shakta Hindus as a private home-based festival.[50]The festival starts at twilight with prayers to Saraswati.[51] She is believed to be another aspect of goddess Durga, and who is the external and internal activity of all existence, in everything and everywhere. This is typically also the day on which the eyes of the deities on the representative clay sculpture-idols are painted, bringing them to a lifelike appearance.[51][52] The day also marks prayers to Ganesha and visit to pandals temples.[53]Day two to five mark the remembrance of the goddess and her manifestations, such as Kumari (goddess of fertility), Mai (mother), Ajima (grandmother), Lakshmi (goddess of wealth) and in some regions as the Saptamatrikas (seven mothers) or Navadurga (nine aspects of Durga).[54][10][55] On the sixth day major festivities and social celebrations start. [4][6] The first nine days overlap with Navaratri festivities in other traditions of Hinduism.[56][22]The puja rituals involve mantras (words manifesting spiritual transformation), shlokas (holy verses), chants and arati, and offerings. These also include Vedic chants and recitations of the Devi Mahatmya text in Sanskrit.[47] The shlokas and mantras praise the divinity of the goddess; according to the shlokas Durga is omnipresent as the embodiment of power, nourishment, memory, forbearance, faith, forgiveness, intellect, wealth, emotions, desires, beauty, satisfaction, righteousness, fulfillment and peace.[57][H] The specific practices vary by region.[61]

The rituals before the puja begins include the following:[62]

  • Paata Puja: The process of making an idol usually begins with ‘Paata Puja’, on the day of the Rath Yatra that usually takes place around July. ‘Paata’ is the wooden frame that forms the base for the idols.[63]
  • Bodhana: Involves rites to awaken and welcome the goddess to be a guest, typically done on the sixth day of the festival. The amorphous sight of the goddess is consecrated into a ghata or noggin while the visible sight is consecrated into the murti or idol. These rituals are known as ghatasthapana and pranapratistha respectively.[64]
  • Adhivasa: Anointing ritual wherein symbolic offerings are made to Durga, with each item representing a remembrance of subtle forms of her. Typically completed on the sixth day as well.[65]
  • Navapatrika snan: Bathing of the navapatrika with holy water done on the seventh day of the festival.[66]
  • Sandhi puja and Ashtami pushpanjali: The eighth day begins with elaborate pushpanjali rituals. The cusp of the ending of the eighth day and beginning of the ninth day is considered to be the moment when per scriptures Durga engaged in a fierce battle against Mahishasura and was attacked by the demons Chanda and Munda. Goddess Chamunda emerged from the third eye of Durga and killed Chanda and Munda at the cusp of Ashtami and Navami, the eighth and ninth days respectively. This moment is marked by the sandhi puja, involving the offering of 108 lotuses and lighting if 108 lamps. It is a forty-eight minutes long ritual commemorating the climax of battle. The rituals are performed in the last 24 minutes of Ashtami and the first 24 minutes of Navami. In some regions, devotees sacrifice an animal such as a buffalo or goat, but in many regions, there isn’t an actual animal sacrifice and a symbolic sacrifice substitutes it. The surrogate effigy is smeared in red vermilion to symbolize the blood spilled.[67] The goddess is then offered food (bhog). Some places also engage in devotional service.[68]

Left: Dhaks, played during the pujo; right: Dhunuchi naach on Navami; bottom: Women taking part in sindoor khela on Vijaya Dashami.

A 47-seconds sample of dhak playing.

  • Homa and bhog: The ninth day of festival is marked with the homa (fire oblation) rituals and bhog. Some places also perform kumari puja on this day.[69]
  • Sindoor khela and immersion: The tenth and last day, called Vijaya dashami is marked by sindoor khela, where women smear sindoor or vermillion on the sculpture-idols and also smear each other with it. This ritual signifies the wishing of a blissful marital life for married women. Historically the ritual has been restricted to married women. The tenth day is the day when Durga emerged victorious against Mahishasura and it ends with a procession where the clay sculpture-idols are ceremoniously taken to a river or coast for immersion rites.[70][71] Following the immersion, Durga is believed to return to her mythological marital home of Kailasha to Shiva and the cosmos in general. People distribute sweets and gifts, visit their friends and family members on the tenth day.[72] Some communities such as those near Varanasi mark the day after Vijaya dashami, called Ekadashi, by visiting a Durga temple.[73]
  • Dhunuchi naach and dhuno pora: Dhunuchi naach involves a dance ritual performed with dhunuchi (incense burner). Drummers called dhakis, carrying large leather-strung dhaks create music, to which people dance either during or not during aarati. Some places, especially home pujas, also observe dhuno pora, a ritual involving married women carrying dhunuchis burning with incense and dried coconuts, on a cloth on their head and hands,

Decorations, sculptures, and stages

From top left to bottom right (a) A craftsperson sculpting the face of the sculpture-idol; (b) Durga Puja pandal decorations in Kolkata; (c) Interior decorations of a pandal; (d) Street lights installed during the festivities.

The process of the creation of clay sculpture-idols (pratima or murti) for the puja, from the collection of clay to the ornamentation is a ceremonial process. Though the festival is observed post-monsoon harvest, the artisans begin making the sculpture-idols months before, during summer. The process begins with prayers to Ganesha and to the perceived divinity in materials such as bamboo frames in which the sculpture-idols are cast.[74]

Durga statue being made

Clay, or alluvial soil, collected from different regions form the base. This choice is a tradition wherein Durga, perceived as the creative energy and material, is believed to be present everywhere and in everything in the universe.[74] In certain traditions in Kolkata, a custom is to include soil samples in the clay mixture for Durga from areas believed to be nishiddho pallis (forbidden territories; territories inhabited by the «social outcasts» such as brothels).[75][76][77]

The clay base is combined with straw, kneaded, and then molded into a cast made from hay and bamboo. This is layered to a fine final shape, cleaned, painted, and polished. A layer of a fiber called jute, mixed in with clay, is also attached to the top to prevent the statue from cracking in the months ahead. The heads of the statues are more complex and are usually made separately.[74] The limbs of the statues are mostly shaped from bundles of straws.[74] Then, starting about August, the local artisans hand-paint the sculpture-idols which are later dressed in clothing, are decorated and bejewelled, and displayed at the puja altars.[74][78]

A man creating a statue in Rangpur, Bangladesh

A man creating a statue in Rangpur, Bangladesh

The procedure for and proportions of the sculpture-idols are described in arts-related Sanskrit texts of Hinduism, such as the Vishvakarma Sashtra.[79]

Environmental impact

A Durga sculpture-idol in the river, post-immersion.

The sculpture-idols for the puja are traditionally made of biodegradable materials such as straw, clay, soil, and wood.[80] In today’s times, brighter colored statues have increased in popularity and have diversified the use of non-biodegradable, cheaper or more colorful substitute synthetic raw materials. Environmental activists have raised concerns about the paint used to produce the statue, stating that the heavy metals in these paints pollute rivers when the statues are immersed at the end of the Durga festival.[80]

Brighter colors that are also biodegradable and eco-friendly, as well as the traditional natural colors, are typically more expensive compared to the non biodegradable paints.[81] The Indian state of West Bengal has banned the use of hazardous paints, and various state government have started distributing lead-free paints to artisans at no cost to prevent pollution.[82]

Animal sacrifice, symbolic sacrifice

Sacrifice of a buffalo during Durga Puja, in Assam.

Shakta Hindu communities mark the slaying of Mahishasura and the victory of Durga with a symbolic or actual sacrifice. Most communities prefer symbolic sacrifice, where a statue of the asura is made of flour or equivalent, is immolated and smeared with vermilion, symbolic of the blood that had spilled during the battle.[67][83] Other substitutes include a vegetable or a sweet dish considered equivalent to the animal.[84] In certain instances, devotees consider animal sacrifice distasteful, and practice alternate means of expressing devotion while respecting the views of others in their tradition.[85]

In communities performing actual sacrifice, an animal is sacrificed, mainly at temples.[86] In Nepal, West Bengal, Odisha and Assam, animal sacrifices are performed at Shakta temples to commemorate the legend of Durga slaying Mahishasura.[87] This involves slaying of a fowl, goat or a male water-buffalo. This practice is rare among Hindus outside the regions of Bengal, Odisha and Assam.[88] In these regions, the festival season is primarily when significant animal sacrifices are observed.[88]

The Rajputs of Rajasthan worship their weapons and horses in the related festival of Navaratri, and some historically observed the sacrifice of a goat, a practice that continues in some places.[89][90] The sacrifice ritual, supervised he the priest, requires slaying of the animal with a single stroke. In the past this ritual was considered a rite of passage into manhood and readiness as a warrior.[91] The Kuldevi (clan deity) among these Rajput communities is a warrior goddess, with local legends tracing reverence for her during Rajput-Muslim wars.[92][better source needed]

Pandals and theme-based pujas

Two theme-based pandals in Kolkata.

Months before the start of Durga Puja, youth members of the community collect funds and donations, engage priests and artisans, buy votive materials and help build pandals centered around a theme, which has rose to prominence in recent years. Such themes have included sex work,[93] celebration of humanity,[94] marginalization of queer persons and transgender persons,[95] folk culture,[96] celebration of cinema,[97] womanhood,[96] pro-environment themes,[98] while others have chosen metaphorical themes such as celebration of maati (literally, soil or ash) and «finding one’s own light».[99] Pandals have also been replicated on existing temples, structures, and monuments[100][101] and yet others have been made of elements such as metal scraps,[102] nails,[103] and turmeric[104] among others. Durga Puja pandals have also been centered around themes to acknowledge political events such as the 2019 Balakot airstrike and to protest against the National Register of Citizens of India.[105][106]

. The budget required for such theme-based pujas is significantly higher than traditional pujas. For such theme-based pujas, the preparations and the building of pandals are a significant arts-related economic activity, often attracting major sponsors.[107] Such commercialized pujas attract crowds of visitors. The growth of competitiveness in theme-based pandals has escalated costs and scale of Durga Puja in eastern states of India. Some segments of the society criticize the billboards, the economic competition, and seek return to basics.[108] The competition takes many forms, such as the height of statue. In 2015, an 88-foot statue of Durga in Kolkata’s Deshapriya Park attracted numerous devotees, with some estimates placing visitors at one million.[109][110]

Regional celebrations and observances

Durga Puja at Bagbajar, Kolkata, example of a sarvajanin barowari puja.

There exists variation in worship practices and rituals associated with Durga Puja, as is the case with other Hindu festivals, in the Indian subcontinent.[111] Hinduism accepts flexibility and leaves the set of practices to the choice of the individuals concerned. Different localized rituals may be observed regionally, with these variations accepted across temples, pandals, and within families.[112]

The festival is most commonly associated with Bengali Hindus, and with the community having variability and differences in practices. There may exist differences of practice between the puja of theme-based Pandals, family pujas (with puja of erstwhile aristocrat families known as bonedi puja), and community pujas (known as barowari pujas ) of neighbourhoods or apartments.[112]

The rituals of the puja also varies from being Vedic, Puranic, or Tantric, or a combination of these.[112] The Bengali Durga Puja rituals typically combine all three. The non-Bengali Durga Puja rituals tend to be essentially Vedic (srauta) in nature but they too incorporate esoteric elements making the puja an example of a culmination of Vedic-Tantric practices.[113]

Historical evidence suggests that the Durga Puja has evolved over time, becoming more elaborate, social, and creative. The festival had earlier been a domestic puja, a form of practice that still remains popular. But it had also come to be celebrated in the sarvajanin (public) form, where communities get together, pool their resources and efforts to set up pandals and illuminations, and celebrate the event as a «mega-show to share».[114] The origins of this variation are unclear, with some sources suggesting a family in Kolkata reviving such celebration in 1411 CE. While other set of sources suggest that a Bengali landlord, named Kamsanarayan, held a mega-show puja in late 16th-century Bengal.[114] Yet, this festival of Bengal is likely much older with the discovery of 11th and 12th-century Durga Puja manual manuscripts such as Durgotsavaviveka, Durgotsava Prayoga, Vasantaviveka and Kalaviveka.[115] The rituals associated with the Durga Puja migrated to other regions from Bengal, such as in Varanasi, a city that has historically attracted sponsorship from Hindus from various parts of the Indian subcontinent including Bengal.[116] In contemporary India, Durga Puja is celebrated in various styles and forms.[117]

Left: Durga Puja festivities by dancers and musicians in Calcutta, circa 1830s-40s; Right: Patna style painting of Durga Puja, circa 1809.

Durga Puja is a widely celebrated festival in the Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh (eastern parts), Assam, and Odisha.[118] It is celebrated over a five-day period. Streets are decked up with festive lights, loudspeakers play festive songs as well as recitation of hymns and chants by priests, and pandals are erected by communities. The roads become overcrowded with revellers, devotees, and pandal-hoppers visiting the pandals on puja days. It often creates chaotic traffic conditions. Shops, eateries, and restaurants stay open all night; fairs are also set up and cultural programmes are held.[119] People form organizing committees, which plan and oversee the pandal during the festivities. Today, Durga Puja has turned into a consumerist social carnival, a major public spectacle and a major arts event riding on the wave of commercialisation, corporate sponsorship, and craze for award-winning. For private domestic pujas, families dedicate an area of their homes, known as thakur dalan, for Durga Puja where the sculpture-idols for worship is placed and decorated with home-dyed fabric, sola ornamentations, and gold and silver foil decorations. Elaborate rituals like arati are performed and prasad is distributed after being offered to the deities. As a tradition, married daughters visit their parents and celebrate the Durga Puja with them, a symbolism alluding to Durga who is popularly believed to return to her natal home during the puja.[120]

Durga Puja is also a gift-giving and shopping season for communities celebrating it, with people buying gifts for not only family members but also for close relatives and friends. New clothes are the traditional gift, and people wear them to go out together during Durga Puja. During puja holidays, people may also go to places of tourist attractions while others return home to spend Durga Puja with their family.[120] It’s a common trend amongst youngsters and even those who are older to go pandal-hopping and enjoy the celebrations.[121]

The organising committees of each puja pandal hires a purohita (priest) who performs the puja rituals on behalf of the community.[122] For the priests, Durga Puja is a time of activity wherein he pursues the timely completion of Vedic-Puranic-Tantric ritual sequences to make various offerings and perform fire oblations, in full public view, while the socio-cultural festivities occur in parallel.[123] The complex puja rituals include periods of accurate and melodic scripture recitation. The puja involves crowds of people visiting the pandals, with smaller groups visiting family pujas, to witness the celebrations.[124] On the last day, the sculpture-idols are carried out in immersion processions across Bengal, following which they are ritually immersed into rivers or other waterbodies. The immersion ceremony continues till a couple of days after the last day of puja.[125]

Immersion procession for Durga Puja, with the sculpture-idols being carried by people on bamboo poles.

According to some scholars, the ritual of immersing the Durga sculpture-idol into the river attracted the attention of colonial era travelers to the Bengal region from Europe, such as Garcin de Tassy and Emma Roberts. In 1831, Tassy reported that similar rituals were annually observed by the Muslim community in Bengal. Shia Muslims observed Muharram over ten days, taking out processions in memory of the martyrdom of Imam Husayn ibn Ali, and then cast a memorial Imam’s cenotaph into a river on the tenth day. Tassy further stated that the Muslim rituals included the same offerings at the annual observation of Muharram that the Hindu rituals included during Durga Puja.[126] According to yet other scholars, the ritual of immersion in water by Hindus for Durga Puja in Bengal and Ganesh Chaturthi in the western states of India, may have grown because members of the Hindu community attempted to create a competing procession and immersion ritual to that of Muharram, allowed by the colonial British Indian government in the 19th and early 20th-centuries.[127]

Durga Puja in New Delhi, 2014.

In Maharashtra, the city of Nashik and other places such as CIDCO, Rajeevnagar, Panchavati, and Mahatmanagar host Durga Puja celebrations.[citation needed] While in Delhi, the first community Durga Puja was organized near Kashmiri Gate by a group of expatriate Bengalis, in 1910, a year before Delhi was declared the capital of British India. This group came to be the Delhi Durga Puja Samiti, popularly known as the Kashmere Gate Durga Puja.[128] The Durga Puja at Timarpur, Delhi was started in the year 1914.[129] In 2011, over 800 Durga Pujas were held in Delhi, with a few hundred more in Gurgaon and NOIDA.[130]

Sculpture-idols in Cuttack, Odisha for Durga Puja, bedecked with jewellery.

In Odisha, Durga Puja is the most important festival of the people of the state. Durga Puja is a very important festival for Odias, during the 4 days of the festival, the streets of the city turns into a wonderland throughout the state, people welcome the arrival of their maa by rejoicing themselves, eating tasty food, wearing new clothes, seeing different pandals across the city, family gathering and gift givings. In 2019, ninety-seven pandals in Cuttack alone, Odisha were reported to bedeck respective sculpture-idols with silver jewelry for Durga Puja celebrations; such club of pandals termed regionally as Chandi Medha. The state capital is famous for the modern themes and creativity In the pandals, while the Western part of the state has a more retro decoration theme to the pandal. In the northern parts of the state particularly Balasore, Durga Puja is celebrated with much fervor and the Odia diaspora abroad especially in Australia, which originates 95% from the district of Balasore celebrates the puja in the same manner which is done back home in Balasore.[131] In September 2019, 160 pandals were reported to be hosting Durga Puja in Cuttack.[132][133]

While in Tripura there were over 2,500 community Durga Puja celebrations in 2013. Durga Puja has been started at the Durgabari temple, in Agartala by King Radha Kishore Manikya Bahadur.[134][135]

Significance

Beyond being an art festival and a socio-religious event, Durga Puja has also been a political event with regional and national political parties having sponsored Durga Puja celebrations. In 2019, West Bengal Chief Minister, Mamata Banerjee announced a grant of 25,000 to all community-organised Durga Pujas in the state.[136]

In 2019, Kolkata’s Durga Puja was nominated by the Indian government for the 2020 UNESCO Representative list of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[137][138] Durga Puja also stands to be politically and economically significant. The committees organising Durga Puja in Kolkata have close links to politicians.[94] Politicians patronize the festival by making donations or helping raise money for funding of community pujas, or by marking their presence at puja events and inaugurations.[94] The grant of 25,000 to puja organizing committees in West Bengal by a debt-ridden state government was reported to cost a budget a 70 crores.[139] The state government also announced an additional grant of 5,000 to puja organizing committees fully managed by women alone, while also announcing a twenty-five percent concession on total electricity bills for puja pandal.[139] The government had made a grant of 10,000 each to more than 20,000 puja organizing committees in the state in 2018.[139]

A 2013 report by ASSOCHAM states West Bengal’s Durga Puja to be a 25,000 crores worth economy, expected to grow at the compound annual growth rate of about 35 per-cent.[140] Economic slowdowns in India, such as in 2019, have hence affected corporate sponsorships and puja budgets for public celebrations.[141] In August 2019, the Income Tax Department of India had allegedly sent notices to various Durga Puja organizing committees in West Bengal, against which the ruling party of the state, All India Trinamool Congress (AITMC) protested.[142][143] The Central Board of Direct Taxes denied sending any such notices,[144] to which AITMC politician Madan Mitra is reported to have said that the intention may have been to enquire if tax deducted at source had been deducted on payments to vendors for organizing community pujas.[94]

Economic significance

Durga Puja directly affects the economy. In 2022, the economy of West Bengal was estimated to get a boost of 50,000 crore rupees.[145] The annual GDP of West Bengal was expected to be expanded by 20-30 percent that year.[146][147] The factors responsible for this economic boost are mainly the increase of earning in transport, tourism, industry, business, shopping and other fields. The Kolkata Metro Railway recorded an earning of ₹6 crore in just five days of Durga Puja in 2022.[148][149]

The famous puja pandals get sponsorship from renowned companies and labels. Usually, the dress and jewelries of the idols, the stuffs used to make the pandals, decorations, lightings are sponsored.

Durga Puja plays a great significance in the living of certain peoples. The kumors, those who make the idols with clay and also makes other clayey products, earns lakhs of rupees by selling a single set of Durga idol of average size. Hence, it makes their annual income because idols used in other festivals are a lot more cheaper. Other professions that receive the majority of their annual income are dhaaki (plays dhaak), priest and other small homecrafts. It is assumed that these profession based small classes would become smaller in population if Durga Puja was absent.

Media attention

A painting by Gaganendranath Tagore depicting Durga Puja immersion.

Durga Puja has been a theme in various artistic works such as movies, paintings, and literature. Shown here is Pratima Visarjan by Gaganendranath Tagore, depicting a Durga Puja immersion procession. This painting inspired the colour scheme of the Indian film, Kahaani.

The day of Mahalaya is marked by the Bengali community with Mahishasuramardini — a two-hours long All India Radio program — that has been popular in the Bengali community since the 1950s. While in earlier days it used to be recorded live, a pre-recorded version has come to be broadcast in recent decades. Bengalis traditionally wake up at four in the morning on Mahalaya to listen to the radio show, primarily involving recitations of chants and hymns from Devi Mahatmyam (or Chandi Path) by Birendra Krishna Bhadra and Pankaj Kumar Mullick. The show also features various devotional melodies.[150]

Dramas enacting the legend of Durga slaying Mahishasura are telecasted on the television. Radio and television channels also air other festive shows,[citation needed] while Bengali and Odia magazines publish special editions for the puja known as Pujabarshiki (Annual Puja Edition) or Sharadiya Sankhya (Autumnal Volume). These contain works of writers, both established and upcoming, and are more voluminous than the regular issues. Some notable examples of such magazines in Bengali are Anandamela, Shuktara, Desh, Sananda, Nabakallol, and Bartaman.[151]

Celebrations outside India

Left: Durga Puja in Germany, in 2009; right: Durga Puja in the Netherlands, in 2017.

Durga Puja is celebrated commonly by Bangladesh’s Hindu community. Some Bengali Muslims also take part in the festivities.[152] In Dhaka, the Dhakeshwari Temple puja attracts visitors and devotees.[153] In Nepal, the festivities are celebrated as Dashain.[3][9]

Beyond south Asia, Durga Puja is organized by Bengali communities in the United States of America.[154] Durga Puja celebrations have also been started in Hong Kong by the Bengali diaspora.[155]

In Canada, Bengali Hindu communities both from Bangladesh and West Bengal, India organise several Durga Pujas.[156] Greater Toronto Area has the most number of Durga Puja celebration venues organized by different Bengali cultural groups such as Bangladesh Canada Hindu Cultural Society (BCHCS), Bongo Poribar Sociocultural Association etc.[156] City of Toronto has a dedicated Durga Temple named Toronto Durgabari where Durga Puja is organized along with other Hindu celebrations. Most of the puja venues of Toronto area try to arrange the puja in best possible way to follow the lunar calendar and timings.

Celebrations are also organized in Europe. The sculpture-idols are shipped from India and stored in warehouses to be re-used over the years.[157] According to BBC News, for community celebrations in London in 2006, these «idols, belonging to a tableau measuring 18ft by 20ft, were made from clay, straw and vegetable dyes». At the end of the puja, the sculpture-idols were immersed in River Thames for the first time in 2006, after «the community was allowed to give a traditional send-off to the deities by London’s port authorities».[157] In Germany, the puja is celebrated in Cologne,[158] and other cities. In Switzerland,[159] puja in Baden, Aargau has been celebrated since 2003. In Sweden, the puja is celebrated in cities such as Stockholm and Helsingborg.[160] In the Netherlands, the puja is celebrated in places such as Amstelveen, Eindhoven, and Voorschoten. In Japan, Durga Puja is celebrated in Tokyo with much fanfare.[161][162]

Footnotes

  1. ^ In the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, many of the stories about obstacles and battles have been considered as metaphors for the divine and demonic within each human being, with liberation being the state of self-understanding whereby a virtuous nature & society emerging victorious over the vicious.[17]
  2. ^ Navratri Puja, Durga-puja.org
  3. ^ Kullu Dussehra, Durga-puja.org
  4. ^ Mysore Dussehra, Durga-puja.org
  5. ^ «Bommai-kolu», Durga-puja.org
  6. ^ Example Sanskrit original: «अहन्निन्द्रो अदहदग्निरिन्दो पुरा दस्यून्मध्यंदिनादभीके ।
    दुर्गे दुरोणे क्रत्वा न यातां पुरू सहस्रा शर्वा नि बर्हीत्॥३॥ – Rigveda 4.28.8, Wikisource It appears in Khila (appendix, supplementary) text to Rigveda 10.127, 4th Adhyaya, per J. Scheftelowitz.[31]
  7. ^ In the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, many of the stories about obstacles and battles have been considered as metaphors for the divine and demonic within each human being, with liberation being the state of self-understanding whereby a virtuous nature and society emerging victorious over the vicious.[17]
  8. ^ Various versions of Devi mantra exist.[58] Examples include: [a] «We know the Great Goddess. We make a meditation of the goddess Durga. May that Goddess guide us on the right path.» (Durga Gayatri Mantra, recited at many stages of Durga Puja);[59] [b] Hrim! O blessed goddess Durga, come here, stay here, stay here, take up residence here, accept my worship. (Durga Avahana Mantra);[60] etc.

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Further reading

  • Banerjee, Sudeshna (2004). Durga Puja: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow. Rupa and Co, Calcutta. ISBN 81-291-0547-0.
  • Bhattacharyya, BK (6 October 2008). «Earthen sculptures of Goddess Durga». The Assam Tribune. Archived from the original on 1 April 2012.
  • Dutta, Krishna. (2003) Calcutta: a cultural and literary history Archived 27 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Signal Books, Oxford, United Kingdom. ISBN 1-902669-59-2.
  • Muthukumaraswamy, M.D.; Kaushal, Molly (2004). Folklore, public sphere, and civil society. National Folklore Support Centre(India). ISBN 978-81-901481-4-6. Archived from the original on 27 April 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2015. (Chapter 6: «Of Public Sphere and Sacred Space: Origins of Community Durga Puja in Bengal.»)
  • Saraswati, Swami Satyananda (2001). Durga Puja Beginner, Devi Mandir. ISBN 1-887472-89-4.

External links

  • Durga Puja at Curlie
  • «Durga Puja — The Hindu Festival, Durga-Puja.org». www.durga-puja.org. Retrieved 25 September 2022.

Одним из колоритных фестивалей, отмечаемых на Севере Индии, выступает Чхат или Чххатх Пуджа (Chhath Puja). В зависимости от местности, ее также называют Сурья Шашти (Surya Shashti), Дала Пуджа (Dala Puja), Чхатхи или Чхатх Парв (Chhath Parv),  Дала Чхат (Dala Chhath). Он посвящен Сурья Деву — Солнцу и проводится ежегодно после праздника Дивали. Как и многие индийские праздники, он занимает не один день. Все его ритуалы занимают четыре дня.

Сурья Шашти считается одним из немногих фестивалей, дошедших до нашего времени с ведического периода. Особенно широко его празднуют в штатах Бихар, Уттар-Прадеш, Джаркханд, Западной Бенгалии.

В дни Чхат Пуджи можно увидеть сотни женщин, которые собираются у священных водоемов, чтобы провести поклонение Солнцу. Особенность этого ритуала заключается в необходимости предлагать Солнцу дары, исключительно стоя в воде. Если поблизости нет водоема, женщины обустраивают себе пространство для церемоний в тазиках, ведрах, поддонах с водой. Они входят в воду в одеждах (сари) и стоят так весь восход Солнца. Вода в реках на рассвете достаточно прохладная, поэтому такое поклонение может считаться полноценной садханой.

Как отмечают Чхатх Пуджу в Индии?

Солнце воспевается в этот день как проявление Вишну Нараяны. Ему отдают почести как источнику жизни, повелителю планет, дарителю урожая и как Божеству, приносящему процветание.

Ритуалы Чхат Пуджи:

  • встреча рассвета, стоя в воде и воспевая гимны Солнцу;
  • омовение в священной реке (кунде, озере);
  • пост (врат) на протяжении 36 часов, включая отказ от питьевой воды;
  • молитвы, чтение мантр в честь Сурьи;
  • арагья — преподнесение Солнцу речной воды (обычно проводится на закате и рассвете);
  • подношение Сурья Деву молока, фруктов, сладостей, благовоний и т.п.

Некоторые из индуистов, направляющихся на Чхатх Пуджу, приходят к реке с простираниями, каждым шагом выражая Солнцу свое особенное отношение.

Индианки поклоняются Солнцу, стоя по колено в воде. Женщины следуют ритуалам, практикующимся столетиями.
Они делают это с глубоким почтением, выражая Сурья Деву свою признательность за все материальные блага, которые были им дарованы за последний год. Помимо благодарности, допускается просить о долголетии и здравии членов семьи, благоденствии и материальном достатке. Считается, что  соблюдение всех ритуалов праздника Солнца обеспечивает исполнение даже заветных желаний.

Дни фестиваля Сурья Шаштхи

  1. Нахайе Кхайе или Нахай-Хай — это первый день праздника, когда очищают дом и принимают омовение в реке. Днем готовят зерно для пуджи. Есть можно только один раз, готовя еду в бронзовой или глиняной посуде. Нельзя есть жареное.
  2. Кхарна или Лоханда — второй день праздника, когда постятся от рассвета до заката на сухую, затем делают Сурья Пуджу, а как стемнело — едят кхир из пальмового сахара и тростникового сока. Кхарна предполагает раздачу прасада родственникам, членам семьи, друзьям. После чего начинается пост длиной 36 часов.
  3. Сандхья Аргхья или Чхатх Пуджа — третий и самый главный день празднеств, который начинают с подготовки к поклонению Солнцу. Делают рисовые ладду и текуа, складывают из в корзинки из бамбука (Даура). В этот день также поют песни в честь Богини Чхат Майи. Кульминация наступает на закате, когда делают большую пуджу в воде с заготовленными загодя предметами поклонения. Затем всю ночь рассказывают истории (Шашти Деви Врат Катха) и поют песни.
  4. Сурьодайя Арха (Уша Аргха и Паран) — четвертый день, когда поклоняются восходящему Солнцу, приходя к речным гхатам с членами семьи еще до рассвета. Сурья Деву предлагают различные подношения, которые затем раздаются в качестве прасада. Так заканчивается Паран — 36-часовое голодание. В конце делают Пуджа Арчану — ритуал поклонения гхату после завершения праздника.

Когда отмечается Чхатх Пуджа?

Праздник плавающий, рассчитывается по Луне. Он приходится на месяц Картика. По западному календарю это октябрь-ноябрь. Первый день — Шукла Чатуртхи, последний — Шукла Саптами. Самый важный день — Шукла Пакша Шашти. Праздник Солнца в Северной Индии отмечается на 6 день после Дивали.

  • В 2022 году Чххат Пуджа проводится с 28 по 31 октября включительно.
  • В 2023 году увидеть Чхат Пуджу можно в период 16 ноября по 19 ноября.
  • В 2024 году  Chhath Puja приходится на время с 5 ноября по 8 ноября.

Пуджа в современном Индуизме. Особенности проведения ритуала, его подробное описание.

Пуджа в индийской традиции

Саи Баба: «Что означает пуджа?»
Женщина: «Пуджа – это поклонение Богу»
Саи Баба: «Вы должны поклоняться Богу внутри, не снаружи. Не смотрите на Бога как на изображение, смотрите на изображение как на Бога. Нужно видеть Бога во всём.»

Большинство индуистов принимают участие в религиозных обрядах ежедневно, причём многие также проводят религиозные обряды у себя дома.

Индуисты совершают следующие ежедневные ритуалы:

— Пуджа на восходе солнца после принятия омовения, или в конце дня. Данный обряд обычно совершается в семейном храме, святилище или домашнем алтаре и состоит из предложения мурти зажжённого светильника, благовоний и еды, которые после предложения считаются прасадом.
— Совместное чтение различных священных писаний.
— Киртан и бхаджан — обряды воспевания молитв, мантр и религиозных песен.
— Различные виды медитации, такие как чтение мантр на чётках «джапа-мала», — ритуал, который называется «джапа»

Ритуальное поклонение божествам и другим священным существам (в т. ч. святым людям) и предметам называется пуджа.
Пуджа ( в переводе с санскрита — «поклонение», «молитва») — религиозный обряд в индуизме, предложение скульптурному образу божества Мурти , Шивалингаму пищи, воды, благовоний, цветов и других элементов.
Пуджа проводится для выражения почтения и преданности Богу (или богам).

Большинство практикующих индуистов молятся один-два раза в день. Однако данный ритуал практикуется не только как ежедневная молитва, но и в особых случаях, например, для «тепла» в доме.

Ритуал должен выполняться после того, как человек, совершающий его принял душ, совершил омовение водой, а также желательно, натощак, чтобы полностью сосредоточиться.

Особые религиозные праздники, на которых исполняется данный ритуал: Дурга-пуджа, Понгал и Лакшми-пуджа, Шиваратри и другие.

Обычно данные церимонии проводятся в храмах или святилищах. Чем выше статус храма, тем большее значение имеют проводимые там богослужения, тем чаще они исполняются.
В таких крупных храмах, как кришнаитский храм Джаганнатха (в Пури, штат Орисса), основные службы проводятся пять раз в день: на рассвете, утром, в полдень, вечером и ночью.

Существуют различные разряды храмовых священнослужителей и их помощников, должности которых зачастую являются наследственными и определяются кастовым статусом. Во главе храмового духовенства, состоящего обычно из брахманов, находится пуджарии, или пуджапанда, который проводит основную часть.
В храмовой пудже рядовые верующие личного участия не принимают, и обычно храм закрыт для них во время совершения таких ритуалов. Цель визита верующих в храм или к другому месту поклонения — совершение даршана, т.е. созерцание объекта поклонения, с ритуальным обходом вокруг него (прадакшина). Как считается, само лицезрение божественного изображения дарует благодать.
Верующие подносят через духовенство божеству те или иные продукты (найведья) и получают их обратно уже освященными (прасад).

ПРОВЕДЕНИЕ

Пуджа включает в себя:
— медитации,
— аскетизм,
— песнопения (бхаджаны),
— чтение священных писаний,
— предложение пищи и поклонов.

Ритуал состоит из определенных, следующих друг за другом ступеней.

Каждое направление индуизма имеют свои собственные способы и верования относительно пуджи.

Но если брать общую, индуистскую систему, то это определенная система, как правило имеет несколько видов и зависит от количества тех предметов, которые используются в пудже.

Количество предметов (упачар) может варьироваться. Тогда она имеет соответствующее название:
— от 1-5 упачар панчопачарапуджа (пуджа из 5 упачар)
— от 8-10 дашопачарапуджа (пуджа на 10 упачар)
— от 13-16 шодапачарапуджа (пуджа на 16 упачар)
Существуют ритуалы на 24, 32, 64 и 108 упачар.

В соответствующих руководствах обычно описывается церимония на 16 упачар (ступеней), в т. ч. созерцание перехода божества в мурти, предложение божеству сиденья (асана), воды для омовения рук и ног, воды для питья, подношение пищи, бетеля для жевания и т. п.
Перед ликом божества производят ритуальные покачивания светильником (церемония арати), воскуривают благовония, читают мантры, поют религиозные гимны, складывают пальцы рук в сакральных жестах (мудры).
В процессе поклонения используются различные аксессуары — разнообразную посуду, одеяния, гирлянды, сандаловую пасту, колокольчики и т.п.
Пуджи могут быть разной продолжительности и значимости; варьировать по числу и очередности входящих в них элементов; различаться по частоте совершения; иметь различный состав участников; быть обращенным к разным объектам культа и преследовать различные цели (помимо поклонения, это могут быть умилостивление или обряды экзорцизма).

В результате проведения церимонии очищается наше тело, состоящее из материальных элементов и развиваются следующие духовные состояния (соответственно):

1. Снэха — знакомство с объектом поклонения.
2. Вишваса — вера в то, что поклоняющийся будет защищён Божеством.
3. Саммана — восхищение величием Божества.
4. Бхакти — любовь и преданность.
5. Гьяна — обретение духовного знания. Оно пока только получается, настоящая его реализация происходит на следующей ступени.
6. Тадатмьябодха — полная реализация тождественности поклоняющегося и объекта поклонения.

Во время ритуала участники наносят отметку тилака из сандаловой пасты на лоб или алую точку в центр лба. Это является символом подчинения Богу (богам). Во время ритуала проводится очищение огнем — в ритуальный (священный) огонь бросаются подношения богам под чтение мантр.


ДОМАШНЯЯ ПУДЖА

Домашняя, или семейная, пуджа мало чем отличается от храмовой; она может быть проще по своему исполнению и проводится, как правило, усилиями самих членов семьи утром и вечером.
В определенных случаях на домашние ритуалы приглашают из храма пуджария.
Почти в каждом индуистском доме имеются священные изображения, лингам или мурти любимых богов, перед которыми читают молитвы, поют гимны и возлагают и возливают приношения. В бедных жилищах данная церемония проходит скромно. Мать семейства на рассвете читает молитвы и звонит в колокольчик перед базарными цветными картинками богов, развешанными в уголке ее комнаты.
В домах богатых людей данное действие совершается с приношениями изысканных блюд и цветов, возжиганием курительных палочек в особой комнате, которая служит фамильным храмом, где никогда не гаснет священный огонь.

Индуистский фестиваль

Дурга Пуджа
আহিরীটোলা সার্বজনীন দূর্গা পুজো ২০১৮.jpg
Наблюдается бенгальцем, Одией, Майтилы и Ассамские общины как социально-культурные и религиозные праздники
Тип Индуистские
Праздники Поклонение индуистским божествам, семье и другим общественным собраниям, покупки и вручение подарков, пиршества, посещение пандалов и культурные мероприятия
Обряды Церемониальное поклонение богине Дурге
Начинается На шестой день Ашвин шукла пакша
Окончание На десятый день Ашвина шукла пакша
дата 2020 года 22 октября — 26 октября
Частота Годовой
Относится к Махалая, Наваратри, Дуссехра

Дурга Пуджа (произносится ), также называемый Дурготсава (произносится ), является ежегодным индуистским праздником, происходящим в Индийский субконтинент который почитает и отдает дань уважения индуистской богине Дурге. Он особенно популярен и традиционно отмечается в индийскихах регистрации Бенгалии, Ассам, Одиша, Трипура и страна Бангладеш, и диаспора из этого региона, а также в Митхиланчал регионах Бихар и Непал. Фестиваль отмечается в индийском календарном месяце Ашвин, который соответствует месяцам с сентября по октябрь по григорианскому календарю, и является десятидневным праздником, из которых имеют последние пять значений. Пуджа проводится дома и в общественных местах, причем последняя включает временную сцену и структурные украшения (известные как пандалы ). Фестиваль также отмечен декламацией Священных Писаний, исполнительским искусством, разгулом, вручением подарков, семейными визитами, пиршествами и публичными процессиями. Дурга пуджа — важный праздник в традиции индуизма шактизма.

Согласно индуистским священным писаниям, праздник знаменует собой победу богини Дурги в ее битве против изменяющих форму асура, Махишасура. Таким образом, фестиваль олицетворяет победу добра над злом, хотя отчасти это праздник урожая, прославляющий богиню как материнскую силу, стоящую за всей жизнью и творением. Дурга пуджа совпадает с празднованиями Наваратри и Душера, которые отмечаются в других традициях индуизма, в разыгрывается танцевальная драма Рам-лила, посвященная победе Рамы над Раваной, и Душера.

Первой богиней, почитаемой во время Дурга-пуджи, является Парвати Дурга (форма Парвати). празднования также включает других главных божеств индуизма, таких как Лакшми (богиня богатства), Сарасвати (богиня и знания музыки), Ганеша (бог доброго начала) и Картикая (бог войны). В бальских традициях и традициях Одиа эти божества считаются детьми Дурги, и считается, что пуджа Дурги отмечена визитом Дурги в ее родной дом со своими детьми. Фестивалю предшествует Махалая, как полагают, знаменует начало пути Дурги к ее родному дому. Первичные праздники начинаются на шестой день (Шастхи), когда богиню приветствуют ритуалами. Фестиваль заканчивается на десятый день (Виджая дашами), когда преданные отправляются в процесс, неся почитаемые глиняные скульптуры-идолы к реке или другому водию и погружают их, символизируя ее возвращение в божественный космос и ее семейный дом. с Шивой на Кайласе. Существуют региональные и общинные вариации празднования фестиваля и наблюдаемых ритуалов.

Дурга пуджа — старая традиция индуизма, хотя ее точное происхождение неясно. Сохранившиеся рукописи 14-го века содержат руководство для пуджи Дурга, в то время как исторические записи показывают, что королевские особы и богатые семьи спонсировали крупные празднества пуджи Дурга, по крайней мере, с 16-го века. Популярность пуджи Дурга пришла во время британского правления в провинциях Бенгалия, Одиша и Ассам. В наше время пуджа Дурга важна как социальный и культурный праздник, так и религиозный, где бы он ни проводился.

За прошедшие годы Дурга пуджа стала неотъемлемой частью индийской культуры, и бесчисленное множество людей отмечают этот праздник по-своему уникальным образом, сохраняя это при традициях.

Содержание

  • 1 Имена
  • 2 История и происхождение
  • 3 Ритуалы и практика
    • 3.1 Украшения, скульптуры и сцены
      • 3.1.1 Воздействие на окружающую среду
    • 3.2 Жертвоприношение животных, символическое жертвоприношение
    • 3.3 Пандалы и тематические пуджи
  • 4 Региональные праздники и обряды
  • 5 Дурга Пуджа в Одише
  • 6 Значимость
    • 6.1 Внимание СМИ
  • 7 Празднования за пределами Индии
  • 8 Сноски
  • 9 Ссылки
    • 9.1 Библиография
  • 10 Дальнейшее чтение
  • 11 Внешние ссылки

Имена

В регистрации Бенгалии, Одише, Ассаме и Трипуре Дурга пуджа также называется Акалбодхан (безвременное пробуждение Дурги), Шарадия пуджо («осеннее поклонение»), Шародотсаб («праздник осени»), Маха пуджо («великая пуджа»), Маайер пуджо («поклонение Матери»), Дурга пуджо, или просто пуджа или пуджо. В Бангладеш Дурга-пуджа исторически отмечается как Бхагабати-пуджа.

Дурга-пуджа также упоминается по названиям связанных шакта-индуистских фестивалей, таких как Наваратри, отмечаемых в те же дни в других местах в Индии; например, в Бихаре, Джаркханде, Гуджарате, Уттар-Прадеше, Пенджабе, Керале и Махараштре, Кулу-душехре, Отметкаемых в долине Кулу, Химачал-Прадеш; Майсур-Душера празднуется в Майсоре, Карнатака; Боммаи голу, прославленный в Тамил Наду ; Bommala koluvu, празднуется в Андхра-Прадеше; и Батукамма, прославленный в Телангана.

История и происхождение

Дурга — древнее божество индуизма согласно имеющимся археологическим и текстовым свидетельствам. Однако происхождение пуджи Дурга неясно и недокументировано. Сохранившиеся рукописи 14-го века содержат инструкции по проведению Дурга-пуджи, в то время как исторические записи предполагают, что королевские особы и богатые семьи спонсируют крупные публичные праздники Дурга-пуджи, по крайней мере, с 16-го века. В джайнском тексте XI или XII веков Ясатилака Сомадевы включают ежегодный фестиваль, посвященный богине-воину, отмечаемый королем и его вооруженными силами, описание отражает атрибуты Дурга пуджи.

Храм Дадхимати Мата из Раджастхан связанном с Дургой надписью из 10-й главы Деви Махатмьи. Храмовая датируется современными методами 608 г. н. Э.

Имя Дурга и связанные с ним термины встречаются в ведической литературе, например, в гимнах Ригведы 4.28, 5.34, 8.27, 8.47, 8.93 и 10.127, а также в разделах 10.1 и 12.4 Атхарваведы божество по имени Дурги появляется в разделе 10.1.7 Тайттирия Араньяка. Хотя в ведической литературе используется слово Дурга, в описании отсутствуют легендарные подробности о Дурге пудже, которые встречаются в более поздней индуистской литературе. Ключевым текст, настоящий с Дурга пуджей, является Деви Махатмья, который читается во время фестиваль. Дурга, вероятно, был составлен этот индуистский текст, который ученым по разным оценкам датирует продолжительность нашей эры 400 и 600 лет. Писание Деви Махатмья природу злых сил, символизируемых Махишасурой, как изменяющих форму, обманчивых и адаптирующихся по своей природе, форме и стратегии для создания трудностей и, таким образом, достижения своих злых целей. Дурга понимает зло и противостоит ему, чтобы достичь своих торжественных целей. Дурга в своих различных формах появляется как независимое божество в индийских текстах. И Юдхиштхира, и Арджуна персонажи Махабхараты вызывают гимны Дурге. Она появляется в Харивамсе в форме хвалебной речи Вишну и в молитве Прадьюмны. Выдающееся упоминание Дурги в таких эпосах могло привести к ее поклонению.

Выставка скульптур-идолов, изображающих Рама, молящегося Дурге

Индийские тексты с упоминаниями о Дурге пудже противоречивы. В легенде, найденной в некоторых версиях пуран, упоминается, что это был весенний праздник, в то время как Деви-Бхагавата-пурана и две другие шакта-пураны упоминают его как осенний праздник. Рукописи Рамаяны также противоречивы. Версии Рамаяны, найденные на севере, западе и юге Индийского субконтинента, описывают , что Рама помнил Сурью (индуистского бога солнца) перед битвой против Раваны, но в бенгальских рукописях Рамаяны, таких как рукопись Криттивасы XV века, упоминается, что Рама поклонялся Дурге. По мнению некоторых ученых, поклонение яростной богине-воительнице Дурге и ее более мрачному и жестокому проявлению Кали стало популярным в Бенгалии во время и после средневековой эпохи, отмеченной мусульманскими вторжениями и завоеваниями. 119>

Утверждается, что значение Дурги и других богинь в индуистской культуре возникло после того, как армии исламистов завоевали регионов Индийского субконтинента. По мнению других ученых, маргинализация бенгальских индуистов в средневековую эпоху привела к повторному утверждению индуистской идентичности и акценту на социальном празднике, публично прославляющем богиню-воительницу. С средневековья до наших дней Дурга пуджа отмечается как социально-культурное событие, сохраняя при этом корни религиозного поклонения.

Ритуалы и практики

Слева вверху направо (а) Структура скульптуры-идола Дурги, созданная в Кумортули ; б) женщина несет подношения для пуджи; (в) Сандхи-пуджа в день Аштами; (г) Погружение скульптуры-идола в Виджая Дашами.

Дурга пуджа — это десятидневное мероприятие, из последних пяти дней включает в себя выступ ритуалы и практики. Фестиваль начинается с Махалаи — дня, когда индусы совершают тарпану, предлагая воду и пищу своим мертвым предкам. Этот день также знаменует приход Дурги из ее мифологического семейного дома на Кайласе. Следующим знаменательным днем ​​фестиваля является шестой день (Саштхи), когда преданные приветствуют богиню и отмечают торжественные торжества. В седьмой день (Саптами), восьмой (Аштами) и девятый (Навами) дни почитаются богиня вместе с Лакшми, Сарасвати, Ганешей и Картикеей, и в эти дни отмечаются основные дни поклонения чтением священных писаний, пуджей, легендами. Дурги в Деви Махатмье, социальные визиты в тщательно украшенные и освещенные пуджи (временные сооружения, предназначенные для проведения пуджи) и др.

Дурга Пуджа как праздник урожая

Om ты рис [пшеница…], Ом ты жизнь, ты жизнь богов, ты наша жизнь, твоя наша внутренняя жизнь, ты долгая жизнь, ты даришь жизнь, Ом Солнце с его лучами (….)

— Гимн к началу Дурга-пуджи,. Переводчик: Дэвид Кинсли

Дурга-пуджа — это, в частности, праздник урожая после дождя, отмечается который в те же дни в индуистской шактизма, что и в других его традициях. Практика включения пучка из девяти различных растений, называемая навапатрика, как символ Дурги, является свидетельством ее сельскохозяйственного значения. Обычно отбираемые растения включают не только репрезентативные важные культуры, но и не сельскохозяйственные культуры. Это, вероятно, означает индуистское убеждение, что богиня — это «не просто сила, присущая выращиванию сельскохозяйственных культур, но сила, присущая всей растительности». Фестиваль является социальным и публичным мероприятием в восточных и северо-восточных штатах Индии, где он доминирует в религиозной сфере. и социально-культурная жизнь с временными пандалями, построенными на общественных площадях, придорожных святынях и храмах. Некоторые шактистские индуисты отмечают этот фестиваль как частный домашний праздник. Фестиваль начинается в сумерках с молитв Сарасвати. Считается, что она является еще одним аспектом богини Дурги, которая является внешней и внутренней активностью всего сущего, во всем и везде. Как правило, в этот день также рисуют глаза божеств на представительных глиняных скульптурах-идолах, придавая им реалистичный вид. В этот день также отмечаются молитвы Ганеше и посещение храмов пандалов. Со второго по пятый день отмечается поминовение богини и ее проявлений, таких как Кумари (богиня плодородия), Май (мать), Аджима (бабушка), Лакшми (богиня благодати). богатство), в некоторых регионах — Саптаматрики (семь матерей) или Навадурга (девять Дурги). На шестой день начинаются масштабные гуляния и светские праздники. Первые девять дней совпадают с праздниками Наваратри в других традициях индуизма. Ритуалы пуджи включают в себя мантры (слова, выражающие духовное преобразование), шлоки (священные стихи), песнопения, арати и подношения. Сюда также входят ведические песнопения и декламация текста Деви Махатмья на санскрите. Шлоки и мантры восхваляют божественность богини; Согласно шлокам, Дурга вездесуща как воплощение силы, питания, памяти, терпения, веры, прощения, интеллекта, богатства, эмоций, желаний, красоты, удовлетворения, праведности, удовлетворения и мира. Конкретные практики различаются в зависимости от региона.

Ритуалы перед началом пуджи включают следующее:

  • Бодхана: включает обряды для пробуждения и приветствия богини в качестве обычно выполняемых на шестой день фестиваля..
  • Адхиваса: ритуал помазания, при котором Дурге делаются символические подношения, причем каждый предмет представляет собой воспоминание о ее тонких формах. Обычно также выполняется на шестой день.
  • Навапатрика снан: омовение навапатрики святой водой, совершенное в седьмой день праздника.
  • Сандхи пуджа и Аштами пушпанджали: начинается восьмой день с тщательно продуманными ритуалами пушпанджали. Куспид окончания восьмого дня и начало девятого дня считается вступлением дня согласно писаниям, Дургаила в жестокую битву против Махишасуры и подверглась нападению демонов Чанда и Мунда. Богиня Чамунда появилась из третьих глаз Дурги и убила Чанду и Мунду на пороге Аштами и Навами, на восьмой и девятый дни соответственно. В этот момент проводится сандхи-пуджа, включающая подношение 108 лотосов и зажигание 108 ламп. Это 48-минутный ритуал, посвященный кульминации битвы. Ритуалы выполняются в последние 24 минуты Аштами и первые 24 минуты Навами. В некоторых регионах преданные приносят жертву животное, такое как буйвол или козел, но во многих регионах настоящее жертвоприношения животных нет, и его заменяет символическое жертвоприношение. Суррогатное изображение размазано красным киноварью, чтобы символизировать пролитую кровь. Затем богине предъявляется еду (бхог). На некоторых местах также занимаются преданным служением.

Слева: дхаки, играемые во время пуджо; справа: Дхунучи наах на Навами; внизу: женщины, принимающие участие в синдур кхела на Виджая Дашами.

  • Хома и бхог: Девятый день праздника отмечен ритуалами хома (подношение огню) и бхогом. В некоторых местах также проводят кумари пуджу в этот день.
  • Синдур кхела и погружение: Десятый и последний день, называемый Виджая дашами, отмечен синдур кхела, когда мажут синдур или кинов на поверхности скульптуры-идолы и тоже мажут друг этим друга. Этот ритуал означает желание замужних женщин счастливой супружеской жизни. Исторически ритуал использовался только для замужних женщин. Десятый день — это день, когда Дурга одержала победу над Махишасурой, и он совершил процесс, во время которого глиняные скульптуры-идолы церемонно переносятся на реку или на побережье для проведения обрядов погружения. Считается, что после погружения Дурга возвращается в свой мифологический семейный дом Кайлаша с Шивой и космосом в целом. На десятый день люди раздают сладости и подарки, ходят в гости к друзьям и членам семьи. Некоторые общины, например, близ Варанаси, отмечают день после Виджая дашами, называемого Экадаши, посещением храма Дурги.
  • Дхунучи наах и дхуно пора: Дхунучи наах включает в себя танцевальный ритуал, выполняемый с дхунучи (курильница). Барабанщики, называемые дхаки, несут большие обтянутые кожей дхаки показать музыку, которые люди танцуют либо во время, либо не во время аарати. В некоторых местах, особенно в домашних пуджах, также соблюдают дхуно пора, ритуал с участием замужних женщин, несущих дхунучи, сжигаемые ладаном и сушеными кокосами, на ткани на голове и руках

Украшения, скульптуры и сцены

Сверху слева внизу внизу (а) Мастер лепит лицо скульптуры-идола; б) украшение пандала Дурга-пуджа в Калькутте; в) внутренние украшения пандала; (d) Уличные фонари, установленные во время празднеств.

Процесс создания глиняных скульптур-идолов (пратима или мурти ) для пуджи, от сбора глины до украшений, является церемониальным процессом. Хотя на фестивале отмечается сбор урожая после сезона дождей, начинают делать скульптуры-идолы за несколько месяцев до этого, летом. Процесс начинается с молитв Ганеше и воспринимаемой божественности в материалах, таких как бамбуковые рамы, в которых отливаются скульптуры-идолы.

Делают статую Дурги Делается статуя из глины

Глина, или наносная земля, собранная в разных регионах от основание. Этот выбор — традиция, согласно которой Дурга воспринимает как творческая энергия и материал, присутствует везде и во вселенной. В некоторых традициях Калькутте есть обычаи образцов почвы в глиняных смесях для Дурги из областей, которые считаются nishiddho pallis (запрещенные территории; территория, населенные «социальными изгоями», такими как публичные дома).

глиняная основа соединяется с соломой, замешивается, а затем вылепляется слепок из сена и бамбука. Это наслоено до окончательной прекрасной формы, очищено, окрашено и полируется. Слой под названием джут, смешанный с глиной, также прикреплен к верху, чтобы статуя не растрескалась в предстоящие месяцы. Головы статуй более сложные и обычно изготавливаются отдельно. Конечности статуй в основном сформированы из пучков соломинок. Затем, в августе, местные мастера вручную раскрашивают скульптуры-идолы, которые одеваются в одежду, украшаются и украшаются драгоценностями и выставляются на алтаре для пуджи.

Человек строит статую в Рангпуре, Бангладеш.jpg Статуя человека, строящего в Рангпуре, Бангладеш.jpg

Порядок и пропорции скульптур-идолов в связанном с искусством санскритских текстах индуизма, таких как Вишвакарма Саштра.

Воздействие на окружающую среду

Скульптура-идол Дурги в реке, пост- погружение.

Скульптуры-идолы для пуджи традиционно изготавливаются из биоразлагаемых материалов, таких как солома, глина, земля и дерево. В наши дни работы статуй более ярких цветов заменили, и они позволили разнообразить использование не поддающегося биологическому разложению, более дешевого или более красочного синтетического сырья-заменителя. Активисты-экологи выразили обеспокоенность по поводу краски, используемой для изготовления статуи, что тяжелые металлы в этих красках загрязняют реки, когда статуи погружаются в воду в конце фестиваля Дурга.

Более яркие цвета, которые также поддаются биологическому разложению и экологически чистым, а также традиционным натуральным цветам, как правило, дороже по сравнению с не поддающимся биологическому разложению красками. Индийский штат Западная Бенгалия запретил использование опасных красок, правительство различных штатов бесплатно бессвинцовые краски среди ремесленников для предотвращения загрязнения.

Жертвоприношение животных, символическое жертвоприношение

Жертвоприношение буйвол во время пуджи Дурга в Ассаме.

Шактинские индуистские общины отмечают убийство Махишасуры и победу Дурги символическим или фактическим жертвоприношением. Большинство сообществ предпочитают символические жертвоприношения, когда статуя асура представляет смазана киноварью, символизирующую кровь, пролитую во время битвы. Другие заменители включают овощное или сладкое блюдо, которое считается эквивалентом животного. В некоторых случаях преданные считают животных неприятными и практикующими альтернативные способы выражения преданности, уважая при этом взгляды других в традициях.

В общинах, совершающих фактическое жертвоприношение, животное приносят в жертву, в основном в храмах. В Непале регистрируются Бенгалии, Одише и Ассаме в храмах Шакты совершенных жертвоприношения животных, чтобы увековечить легенду о Дурге, убившей Махишасуру. Это включает в себя убийство птицы, козы или самца водяного буйвола. Эта практика редко встречается среди индуистов за пределами Бенгалии, Одиши и Ассама. В регионах этих сезонных праздников в основном приходится на период жертвоприношений животных.

Раджпуты из Раджастхана поклоняются своему оружию и лошадям на соответствующем празднике Наваратри, некоторые исторически наблюдали жертвоприношение козла, практика, которая продолжается в некоторых местах. Ритуал жертвоприношения, проводимый священником, требует убийства животного одним ударом. В этот ритуал считался обрядом перехода к зрелости и боевой готовности. Кульдеви (клановое божество) в этих раджпутских общинах является богиней-воином, и местные легенды прослеживают почтение к ней во время раджпутско-мусульманских войн.

Пандалы и тематические пуджи

Два тематических пандала в Калькутте

За несколько месяцев до начала Дурга-пуджи молодые члены общины собирают средства и пожертвования, привлекают священников и ремесленников, покупают материалы для обета и помощи строить пандали, посвященные теме, которая приобрела известность в последние годы. Такая темам секс-работа, прославление человечности, маргинализация гомосексуалистов и трансгендеров, народная культура, прославление кино, женственности, темы в защите окружающей среды, в то время как другие выбрали такие метафорические такие темы, как празднование маати (буквально земля или пепел) и «обретение собственного света». Пандалы также были воспроизведены на храмах, другие были сделаны из таких элементов, как металлические обрезки, гвозди и куркума. Пандалы Дурга пуджа также сосредоточены вокруг тем, чтобы отмечать политические события, такие как авиаудар в Балакоте в 2019 году и протестовать против национального журнала граждан Индии.

Дизайны и скульптуры-идолы, созданный заказал ремесленников, что также является коллективным усилием с участием рабочих, архитекторов и представителей сообщества, принимающих его. Бюджет, необходимое для проведения таких тематических пудж, значительно выше, чем для пудж. Подготовка к таким тематическим пуджам и возведение пандалов является важным видом экономической деятельности, привлекающей участие спонсоров. Такие коммерческие пуджи привлекают толпы посетителей. Рост конкуренции в тематических пандах привел к увеличению затрат и масштабов пуджи Дурга в восточных штатах Индии. Некоторые слои общества критикуют рекламные щиты, экономическую конкуренцию и стремятся вернуться к основам. Конкурс принимает разные формы, например, высоту статуи. В 2015 году 88-футовая статуя в парке Дешаприя в Калькутте привлекательное множество преданных, по некоторым оценкам, около миллиона посетителей.

Региональные праздники и обряды

Дурга пуджа в Багбаджар, Калькутта, пример сарваджанин-баровари пуджи.

Существуют различия в практиках поклонения и ритуалах, связанных с Дурга-пуджей, как и в случае с другими индуистскими праздниками на Индийском субконтиненте. Индуизм допускает гибкость и оставляет набор практик на усмотрение лиц. Различные локальные ритуалы могут соблюдаться на региональном уровне, и эти вариации принимаются в храмах, пандалях и в семьех.

Фестиваль чаще ассоциируется с бенгальскими индуистами и с сообществом, имеющими вариативность и различия в практиках. Могут существовать различия в практике между пуджей пандалов, основанных на теме, пуджами (с пуджей бывших аристократических, известных семейных как бонеди пуджа) и семейными пуджами (известными как пуджи баровари) по соседству или квартирам. {{sfn | Родригес | 2003 | pp = 17-18}

Ритуалы пуджи также различаются от ведических, пуранических, тантрических или их комбинаций. В бенгальских ритуалах пуджи Дурга обычно сочетаются все три. Небенгальские ритуалы пуджи Дурга, как правило, носят преимущественно ведический характер (шраута ), но они также включают эзотерические элементы, что делает пуджу примером кульминации ведико-тантрических практик.

Исторический Данные свидетельствуют о том, что пуджа со временем развивалась, становясь более сложной, социальной и творческой. Раньше домашняя практика — форма, которая до сих пор остается популярной. Он также стал отмечаться в форме сарваджанина (публичной), когда сообщества собираются вместе, объединяют свои ресурсы и усилия для создания пандарей и иллюминаций и праздную это событие как «мега-шоу которым можно поделиться». Истоки этой вариации неясны, некоторые источники предполагают, что семья из Калькутты возродила такой праздник в 1411 году нашей эры. В то время как другие источники предполагают, что бенгальский домовладелец по имени Камсанараян проводил пуджу мега-шоу в Бенгалии в конце 16 века. Тем не менее, этот фестиваль в Бенгалии, вероятно, намного старше, так как были обнаружены манускрипты Дурга пуджи 11 и 12 веков, такие как Дурготсававивека, Дурготсава Прайога, Васантавивека и Калавивека. Ритуалы, связанные с пуджей Дурга, перекочевали в другие регионы из Бенгалии, например, в Варанаси, город, который исторически привлекает спонсорство индуистов из различных частей Индийского субконтинента, включая Бенгалию. В современной Индии Дурга-пуджа празднуется в различных стилях и формах.

Слева: Празднование Дурга-пуджи танцорами и музыкантами в Калькутте, около 1830-40-х годов; Справа: картина Дурга пуджа в стиле Патна, около 1809 года.

Дурга пуджа — широко известный фестиваль в индийских штатах Западная Бенгалия, Бихар, Ассам и Одиша. Он отмечается в течение пяти дней. Улицы украшены праздничными огнями, по громкоговорителям звучат праздничные песни, а священники декламируют гимны и песнопения, а общины устанавливают пандалы. Дороги заполняются гуляками, преданными и любителями пандалов, посещающими пандалы в дни пуджи. Это часто хаотичные условия движения. Магазины, закусочные и рестораны открыты всю ночь; устраиваются ярмарки и культурные программы. Люди образуют организационные комитеты, которые планируют и контролируют пандал во время торжеств. Сегодня Дурга превратилась в потребительский социальный карнавал, крупное публичное зрелище и крупное мероприятие в области искусства, находящееся на волне коммерциализации, корпоративного спонсорства и увлечения наградами. Для частных домашних пудж семьи посвящают часть своих домов, известную как тхакур далан, для пуджи Дурга, где устанавливаются скульптуры-идолы для поклонения и украшаются крашенной в домашних условиях тканью, орнаментами сола и украшениями из золотой и серебряной фольги. Выполняются сложные ритуалы, такие как арати, и раздается прасад после предложения божеств. По традициям замужние дочери навещают своих родителей и отмечают с ними пуджу Дурга, символика, отсылающая к Дурге, которая, как принято считать, возвращается в свой родной дом во время пуджи.

Дурга-пуджа в Шобхабазар Раджбари, в Калькутте, пример пуджи бонди.

Дурга Пуджа также представляет собой подарки для близких родственников и друзей, отмечающих ее, когда люди покупают подарки не только для членов семьи, но и для близких родственников и друзей. Новая одежда — подарок, и люди надевают ее, чтобы вместе гулять во время пуджи Дурга. Во время праздников пуджи люди могут также посещать туристические достопримечательности, в то время как другие возвращаются домой, чтобы провести Дурга пуджу со своей семьей. Это обычная тенденция среди молодежи и даже среди тех, кто старше — прыгать через пандалы и наслаждаться празднованиями.

Организационные комитеты каждого пандала пуджи нанимают пурохита (священника), который проводит ритуалы пуджи от имени сообщества. Для священников Дурга пуджа — это время деятельности, когда он стремится к своевременному завершению последовательности ведических, пуранических и тантрических ритуалов, чтобы делать различные подношения и совершать огненные подношения на глазах у всех, в то время как социокультурные праздники выполняются. Сложные ритуалы пуджи включают периоды точного и мелодичного чтения священных писаний. Пуджа вовлекает толпы людей, посещающих пандалы, с небольшими группами, посещающими семейные пуджи, стать свидетелями празднования. В последний день скульптуры-идолы совершают процесс погружения по Бенгалии, после чего их ритуально погружают в реки или другие водоемы. Церемония погружения продолжается до нескольких дней после последнего дня пуджи.

Процесс погружения во время пуджи Дурга, со скульптурами-идолами, которые люди несут на бамбуковых шестах.

По мнению некоторых, ритуал погружения ученых скульптуры-идола Дурги привлекает внимание путешественников колониальной эпохи. регион Бенгалии из Европы, например Гарсин де Тасси и Эмма Робертс. В 1831 году Тасси сообщил, что ритуалы ежегодно соблюдались мусульманской общиной Бенгалии. Мусульмане-шииты соблюдали Мухаррам в течение десяти дней, устраивая процессии в память о мученической смерти имама Хусейна ибн Али, а на десятый день бросили мемориальный кенотаф Имама в реку. Мухаррамом, индуистские ритуалы во время пуджи Дурга включают в себя те же подношения при ежегодном наблюдении за Мухаррамом. По мнению других ученых, члены индуистской общины попытались создать конкурирующую британскую империю с ритуалом Мухаррам, разрешенный колониальным правительством. Индия в 19-м и начале 20-го веков.

Пуджа Дурга в Нью-Дели, 2014.

В Махараштре, город Нашик и других местах, таких как CIDCO, Радживнагар, Панчавати и Махатманагар проводят празднования Дурги-пуджи. В Дели первая община Дурга пуджа была организована около Кашмирских ворот группа бенгальских эмигрантов в 1910 году, за год до того, как Дели был объявлен столицей Британской Индии. Эта группа стала Дели Дурга Пуджа Самити, широко известная как Пуджа Дурга Кашмирских ворот. Пуджа Дурга в Тимарпуре, Дели была начата в 1914 году. В 2011 году в Дели было проведено более 800 пудж Дурга, еще несколько сотен — в Гургаоне и NOIDA..

Дурга Пуджа в Одише

Скульптуры-идолы в Каттаке, Одиша для Дурги-пуджи, украшенные драгоценностями.

В Одише Дурга-пуджа — самый важный праздник жителей штата. Дурга пуджа — очень важный праздник для Одиаса, в течение 4 дней фестиваля улицы города превращаются в страну чудес по всему штату, люди приветствуют прибытие своего маа, радуясь себе, едят вкусную еду, носят новую одежду, увидеть разные пандалы по всему городу, семейные собрания и раздачи подарков. Сообщалось, что в 2019 году 97 пандалов только в Каттаке, Одиша украсили соответствующие скульптуры-идолы серебряными украшениями для празднования пуджи Дурги; такой клуб пандалов, именуемый на региональном уровне Чанди Медха. Столица штата известна современными темами и творчеством в пандалях, в то время как западная часть штата имеет более ретро-оформление пандала. В северных частях штата, в частности, Баласор, дурга пуджа празднуется с большим рвением, и диаспора одия за рубежом, особенно в Австралии, которая на 95% происходит из района Баласор. празднует пуджу так же, как и дома в Баласоре. В сентябре 2019 года 160 пандалов, как сообщалось, проводили пуджу Дурга в Каттаке.

В то время как в Трипуре в 2013 году было проведено более 2500 общинных празднований Дурга-пуджи. Дурга пуджа была начата в храме Дургабари, в Агартала Короля Радхи Кишор Маникья Бахадур.

Значение

Помимо фестиваля искусства и социально-религиозного события, Дурга пуджа также была политическим событием с региональными и национальными политическими партиями спонсировала празднование пуджи Дурга. В 2019 году главный министр Западной Бенгалии Мамата Банерджи объявил о предоставлении гранта в размере 25000 фунтов стерлингов всем общинам, проводящим пуджи Дурга в штате.

В 2019 году пуджа Дурга в Калькутте была назначена правительством Индии на 2020 Репрезентативный список нематериального культурного наследия человечества ЮНЕСКО. Дурга пуджа также имеет политическое и экономическое значение. Комитеты, организующие пуджу Дурга в Калькутте, имеют тесные связи с политиками. Политики покровительствуют фестивалю, делая пожертвования или помогая собрать деньги для финансирования общественных пудж, или отмечая свое присутствие на мероприятиях пуджи и инаугурации. Сообщается, что грант в размере 25 000 фунтов стерлингов организационным комитетам пуджи в Западной Бенгалии от обремененного долгами правительства штата стоил бюджету 70 крор. Правительство штата также объявило о дополнительном гранте в размере 5000 фунтов стерлингов организационным комитетам пуджи, полностью управляемым только женщинами, а также объявило о 25-процентной уступке в общих счетах за электроэнергию для пандала пуджи. В 2018 году правительство выделило грант в размере 10 000 драм каждому более чем 20 000 оргкомитетов пуджи в штате.

В отчете ASSOCHAM за 2013 год говорится, что пуджа Дурга в Западной Бенгалии является Экономия на сумму 25 000 крор, как ожидается, будет расти при среднегодовых темпах роста, составляющих около 35 процентов. Таким образом, замедление экономического роста в Индии, например, в 2019 году, повлияло на корпоративное спонсорство и бюджеты пуджи для общественных праздников. В августе 2019 года Департамент подоходного налога Индии якобы разослал уведомления в различные организационные комитеты Дурга пуджи в Западной Бенгалии, против чего правящая партия штата Всеиндийский конгресс тринамулов ( AITMC) запротестовал. Центральный совет по прямым налогам отказал в отправке таких уведомлений, на что политик AITMC Мадан Митра, как сообщается, сказал, что, возможно, имел намерение выяснить, удерживается ли налог у источника h было вычтено из выплат продавцам за организацию общественных пудж.

Внимание СМИ

Картина Гаганендраната Тагора, изображающая погружение в Дургу-пуджу. Дурга-пуджа была темой в различных художественных произведениях, таких как фильмы, картины и литература. Здесь изображена Пратима Висарджан, автор Гаганендранатха Тагора, изображающая процесс погружения в пуджу Дурга. Эта картина вдохновила на создание цветовой схемы индийского фильма Кахани.

День Махалаи отмечен бенгальской общиной Махишасурамардини — двухчасовой программой Всеиндийского радио, которая была популярна в бенгальском сообществе. с 1950-х гг. Раньше он записывался в прямом эфире, но в последние десятилетия транслировалась первая записанная версия. Бенгальцы обычно просыпаются в четыре часа утра на Махалае, чтобы послушать радио-шоу, в основном включающее декламацию песнопений и гимнов Деви Махатмьям (или Путь Чанди) Бирендрой Кришна Бхадрой и Панкаджем Кумаром Малликом. В шоу также представлены религиозные мелодии.

По телевидению транслируются драмы, разыгрывающие легенду о Дурге, убившей Махишасуру. Радио и телеканалы также транслируют другие праздничные шоу, журналы Bengali и Odia публикуют специальные выпуски пуджи, известные как Пуджабаршики (Ежегодное издание Пуджи) или Шарадия Санкхья (Осенний выпуск). Они содержат произведения писателей, как признанных, так и будущих, и более объемны, чем обычные выпуски. Некоторыми известными примерами таких журналов на бенгали являются Анандамела, Шуктара, Деш, Сананда, Набакаллол и Бартаман.

Празднования за пределами Индии

Слева: Дурга пуджа в Германии в 2009 году; справа: Дурга-пуджа в Нидерландах, 2017 год.

Дурга-пуджа обычно отмечается индуистской общиной Бангладеш. Некоторые бенгальские мусульмане также принимают участие в торжествах. В Дакке пуджа Храма Дакешвари привлекает посетителей и преданных. В Непале праздники отмечаются как Дашайн.

За пределами Южной Азии, Дурга-пуджа организуется бенгальскими общинами в США. Празднование пуджи Дурга также было начато в Гонконге бенгальской диаспорой.

Празднования также переносятся в Европе. Скульптуры-идолы привозят из Индии и хранят на складах, чтобы использовать их снова и снова. По данным BBC News, для общественных праздников в Лондоне в 2006 году эти «идолы, принадлежащие к изображению размером 18 на 20 футов, были сделаны из глины, соломы и растительных красителей». В конце пуджи скульптуры-идолы были впервые погружены в реку Темзу в 2006 году, после того как «лондонские портовые власти разрешили общине провести традиционные проводы божеств». В Германии пуджа отмечается в Кельне и других городах. В Швейцарии пуджа в Бадене, Аарган отмечается с 2003 года. В Швеции пуджа отмечается в таких городах, как Стокгольм и Хельсингборг. В Нидерландах пуджа отмечается в таких местах, как Амстелвин, Эйндховен и Вуршотен. В Японии Дурга Пуджа отмечается в Токио с большой помпой.

Сноски

Ссылки

Библиография

Дополнительная литература

Внешние ссылки

  • Дурга Пуджа в Британской энциклопедии
  • Дурга Пуджа 2020 Дата, время, мухурт — Астха Дарбаар
  • Дурга Пуджа в Курли

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