Обрезание у евреев название праздника

The brit milah (Hebrew: בְּרִית מִילָה bərīṯ mīlā, pronounced [bʁit miˈla]; Ashkenazi pronunciation: Hebrew pronunciation: [bʁis ˈmilə], «covenant of circumcision»; Yiddish pronunciation: bris Yiddish pronunciation: [bʀɪs]) is the ceremony of circumcision in Judaism.[1] According to the Book of Genesis, God commanded the biblical patriarch Abraham to be circumcised, an act to be followed by his male descendants on the eighth day of life, symbolizing the covenant between God and the Jewish people.[1] Today, it is generally performed by a mohel on the eighth day after the infant’s birth and is followed by a celebratory meal known as seudat mitzvah.[2]

Brit Milah is considered among the most important and central commandments in Judaism, and the rite has played a central role in the formation and history of Jewish civilization. The Talmud, when discussing the importance of Brit Milah, compares it to being equal to all other mitzvot (commandments) based on the gematria for brit of 612.[3] Jews who voluntarily fail to undergo Brit Milah, barring extraordinary circumstances, are believed to suffer Kareth in Jewish theology: the extinction of the soul and denial of a share in the world to come.[4][5][6][7] Judaism does not see circumcision as a universal moral law. Rather, the commandment is exclusive to followers of Judaism and the Jewish people; Gentiles who follow the Noahide Laws are believed to have a portion in the World to Come.[8]

Conflicts between Jews and European civilizations (both Christian and Pagan) have occurred several times over Brit Milah.[7] There have been multiple campaigns of Jewish ethnic, cultural, and religious persecution over the subject, with subsequent bans and restrictions on the practice as an attempted means of forceful assimilation, conversion, and ethnocide, most famously in the Maccabean Revolt by the Seleucid Empire.[7][9][10] According to historian Michael Livingston, «In Jewish history, the banning of circumcision (brit mila) has historically been a first step toward more extreme and violent forms of persecution».[10] These periods have generally been linked to suppression of Jewish religious, ethnic, and cultural identity and subsequent «punishment at the hands of government authorities for engaging in circumcision».[9] The Maccabee victory in the Maccabean Revolt — ending the prohibition against circumcision — is celebrated in Hanukkah.[7][11]

Circumcision rates are near-universal among Jews.[12]

Origins (Unknown to 515 BCE)[edit]

«Isaac’s Circumcision», Regensburg Pentateuch, c1300

The origin of circumcision is not known with certainty; however, artistic and literary evidence from ancient Egypt suggests it was practiced in the ancient Near East from at least the Sixth Dynasty (ca. 2345–ca. 2181 BCE).[13] According to some scholars, it appears that it only appeared as a sign of the covenant during the Babylonian Exile.[14][15][16] Scholars who posit the existence of a hypothetical J source (likely composed during the seventh century BCE) of the Pentateuch in Genesis 15 hold that it would not have mentioned a covenant that involves the practice of circumcision. Only in the P source (likely composed during the sixth century BCE) of Genesis 17 does the notion of circumcision become linked to a covenant.[14][15][16][17]

Some scholars have argued that it originated as a replacement for child sacrifice.[15][17][18][19][20]

Biblical references[edit]

According to the Hebrew Bible, Adonai commanded the biblical patriarch Abraham to be circumcised, an act to be followed by his descendants:

This is My covenant, which ye shall keep, between Me and you and thy seed after thee: every male among you shall be circumcised. And ye shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin; and it shall be a token of a covenant betwixt Me and you. And he that is eight days old shall be circumcised among you, every male throughout your generations, he that is born in the house, or bought with money of any foreigner, that is not of thy seed. He that is born in thy house, and he that is bought with thy money, must needs be circumcised; and My covenant shall be in your flesh for an everlasting covenant. And the uncircumcised male who is not circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin, that soul shall be cut off from his people; he hath broken My covenant.

— Genesis 17:10–14[21]

Leviticus 12:3 says: «And in the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be circumcised.»[22]

According to the Hebrew Bible, it was «a reproach» for an Israelite to be uncircumcised.[23] The plural term arelim («uncircumcised») is used opprobriously, denoting the Philistines and other non-Israelites[24] and used in conjunction with tameh (unpure) for heathen.[25] The word arel («uncircumcised» [singular]) is also employed for «impermeable»;[26] it is also applied to the first three years’ fruit of a tree, which is forbidden.[27]

However, the Israelites born in the wilderness after the Exodus from Egypt were not circumcised. Joshua 5:2–9, explains, «all the people that came out» of Egypt were circumcised, but those «born in the wilderness» were not. Therefore, Joshua, before the celebration of the Passover, had them circumcised at Gilgal specifically before they entered Canaan. Abraham, too, was circumcised when he moved into Canaan.

The prophetic tradition emphasizes that God expects people to be good as well as pious, and that non-Jews will be judged based on their ethical behavior, see Noahide Law. Thus, Jeremiah 9:25–26 says that circumcised and uncircumcised will be punished alike by the Lord; for «all the nations are uncircumcised, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart.»

The penalty of non-observance is kareth (spiritual excision from the Jewish nation), as noted in Genesis 17:1-14.[28] Conversion to Judaism for non-Israelites in Biblical times necessitated circumcision, otherwise one could not partake in the Passover offering.[29] Today, as in the time of Abraham, it is required of converts in Orthodox, Conservative and Reform Judaism.[30]

As found in Genesis 17:1–14, brit milah is considered to be so important that should the eighth day fall on the Sabbath, actions that would normally be forbidden because of the sanctity of the day are permitted in order to fulfill the requirement to circumcise.[31] The Talmud, when discussing the importance of Milah, compares it to being equal to all other mitzvot (commandments) based on the gematria for brit of 612.[3]

Covenants in ancient times were sometimes sealed by severing an animal, with the implication that the party who breaks the covenant will suffer a similar fate. In Hebrew, the verb meaning «to seal a covenant» translates literally as «to cut». It is presumed by Jewish scholars that the removal of the foreskin symbolically represents such a sealing of the covenant.[32]

Ceremony[edit]

Mohel[edit]

A mohel is a Jew trained in the practice of brit milah, the «covenant of circumcision.» According to traditional Jewish law, in the absence of a grown free Jewish male expert, anyone who has the required skills is also authorized to perform the circumcision, if they are Jewish.[33][34] Yet, most streams of non-Orthodox Judaism allow female mohels, called mohalot (Hebrew: מוֹהֲלוֹת, plural of מוֹהֶלֶת mohelet, feminine of mohel), without restriction. In 1984, Deborah Cohen became the first certified Reform mohelet; she was certified by the Berit Mila program of Reform Judaism.[35]

Time and place[edit]

It is customary for the brit to be held in a synagogue, but it can also be held at home or any other suitable location. The brit is performed on the eighth day from the baby’s birth, taking into consideration that according to the Jewish calendar, the day begins at the sunset of the day before. If the baby is born on Sunday before sunset, the brit will be held the following Sunday. However, if the baby is born on Sunday night after sunset, the brit is on the following Monday. The brit takes place on the eighth day following birth even if that day is Shabbat or a holiday. A brit is traditionally performed in the morning, but it may be performed any time during daylight hours.[36]

Postponement for health reasons[edit]

Family circumcision set and trunk, ca. eighteenth century Wooden box covered in cow hide with silver implements: silver trays, clip, pointer, silver flask, spice vessel.

The Talmud explicitly instructs that a boy must not be circumcised if he had two brothers who died due to complications arising from their circumcisions,[37] and Maimonides says that this excluded paternal half-brothers. This may be due to a concern about hemophilia.[37]

An Israeli study found a high rate of urinary tract infections if the bandage is left on too long.[38]

If the child is born prematurely or has other serious medical problems, the brit milah will be postponed until the doctors and mohel deem the child strong enough for his foreskin to be surgically removed.

Adult circumcision[edit]

In recent years, the circumcision of adult Jews who were not circumcised as infants has become more common than previously thought.[39] In such cases, the brit milah will be done at the earliest date that can be arranged. The actual circumcision will be private, and other elements of the ceremony (e.g., the celebratory meal) may be modified to accommodate the desires of the one being circumcised.

Circumcision for the dead[edit]

According to Halacha, a baby who dies before they had time to circumcise him must be circumcised before burial. Several reasons were given for this commandment.[40] Some have written that there is no need for this circumcision.

Anesthetic[edit]

Most prominent acharonim rule that the mitzvah of brit milah lies in the pain it causes, and anesthetic, sedation, or ointment should generally not be used.[41] However, it is traditionally common to feed the infant a drop of wine or other sweet liquid to soothe him.[42][43]

Eliezer Waldenberg, Yechiel Yaakov Weinberg, Shmuel Wosner, Moshe Feinstein and others agree that the child should not be sedated, although pain relieving ointment may be used under certain conditions; Shmuel Wosner particularly asserts that the act ought to be painful, per Psalms 44:23.[41]

In a letter to the editor published in The New York Times on January 3, 1998, Rabbi Moshe David Tendler disagrees with the above and writes, «It is a biblical prohibition to cause anyone unnecessary pain». Rabbi Tendler recommends the use of an analgesic cream.[44] Lidocaine should not be used, however, because lidocaine has been linked to several pediatric near-death episodes.[45][46]

Kvatter[edit]

The title of kvater (Yiddish: קוואַטער) among Ashkenazi Jews is for the person who carries the baby from the mother to the father, who in turn carries him to the mohel. This honor is usually given to a couple without children, as a merit or segula (efficacious remedy) that they should have children of their own. The origin of the term is Middle High German gevater/gevatere («godfather»).[47]

Seudat Mitzah at a brit (1824 Czechia).

Seudat mitzvah[edit]

After the ceremony, a celebratory meal takes place. At the birkat hamazon, additional introductory lines, known as Nodeh Leshimcha, are added. These lines praise God and request the permission of God, the Torah, Kohanim and distinguished people present to proceed with the grace. When the four main blessings are concluded, special ha-Rachaman prayers are recited. They request various blessings by God that include:

  1. the parents of the baby, to help them raise him wisely;
  2. the sandek (companion of child);
  3. the baby boy to have strength and grow up to trust in God and perceive Him three times a year;
  4. the mohel for unhesitatingly performing the ritual;
  5. to send the Messiah in Judaism speedily in the merit of this mitzvah;
  6. to send Elijah the prophet, known as «The Righteous Kohen», so that God’s covenant can be fulfilled with the re-establishment of the throne of King David.

Ritual components[edit]

Uncovering, priah[edit]

At the neonatal stage, the inner preputial epithelium is still linked with the surface of the glans.[48]
The mitzvah is executed only when this epithelium is either removed, or permanently peeled back to uncover the glans.[49]
On medical circumcisions performed by surgeons, the epithelium is removed along with the foreskin,[50] to prevent post operative penile adhesion and its complications.[51]
However, on ritual circumcisions performed by a mohel, the epithelium is most commonly peeled off only after the foreskin has been amputated. This procedure is called priah (Hebrew: פריעה), which means: ‘uncovering’. The main goal of «priah» (also known as «bris periah»), is to remove as much of the inner layer of the foreskin as possible and prevent the movement of the shaft skin, what creates the look and function of what is known as a «low and tight» circumcision.[52]

According to Rabbinic interpretation of traditional Jewish sources,[53] the ‘priah’ has been performed as part of the Jewish circumcision since the Israelites first inhabited the Land of Israel.[54]

The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion states that many Hellenistic Jews attempted to restore their foreskins, and that similar action was taken during the Hadrianic persecution, a period in which a prohibition against circumcision was issued. The writers of the dictionary hypothesize that the more severe method practiced today was probably begun in order to prevent the possibility of restoring the foreskin after circumcision, and therefore the rabbis added the requirement of cutting the foreskin in periah.[55]

According to Shaye J. D. Cohen, the Torah only commands milah.[56] David Gollaher has written that the rabbis added the procedure of priah to discourage men from trying to restore their foreskins: «Once established, priah was deemed essential to circumcision; if the mohel failed to cut away enough tissue, the operation was deemed insufficient to comply with God’s covenant,» and «Depending on the strictness of individual rabbis, boys (or men thought to have been inadequately cut) were subjected to additional operations.»[2]

Engraving of a brit (1657)

Metzitzah[edit]

note: alternate spellings Metzizah[57] or Metsitsah[58] are also used to refer to this.

In the Metzitzah (Hebrew: מְצִיצָה), the guard is slid over the foreskin as close to the glans as possible to allow for maximum removal of the former without any injury to the latter. A scalpel is used to detach the foreskin. A tube is used for metzitzah
In addition to milah (the initial cut amputating the akroposthion) and p’riah and subsequent circumcision, mentioned above, the Talmud (Mishnah Shabbat 19:2) mentions a third step, metzitzah, translated as suction, as one of the steps involved in the circumcision rite. The Talmud writes that a «Mohel (Circumciser) who does not suck creates a danger, and should be dismissed from practice».[59][60] Rashi on that Talmudic passage explains that this step is in order to draw some blood from deep inside the wound to prevent danger to the baby.[61]
There are other modern antiseptic and antibiotic techniques—all used as part of the brit milah today—which many say accomplish the intended purpose of metzitzah, however, since metzitzah is one of the four steps to fulfill Mitzvah, it continues to be practiced by a minority of Orthodox and Hassidic Jews.[62]

Metzitzah B’Peh (oral suction)[edit]

This has also been abbreviated as MBP.[63]

The ancient method of performing metzitzah b’peh (Hebrew: מְצִיצָה בְּפֶה)—or oral suction[64][65]—has become controversial. The process has the mohel place his mouth directly on the infant’s genital wound to draw blood away from the cut. The vast majority of Jewish circumcision ceremonies do not use metzitzah b’peh,[66] but some Haredi Jews continue to use it.[67][68][57] It has been documented that the practice poses a serious risk of spreading herpes to the infant.[69][70][71][72] Proponents maintain that there is no conclusive evidence that links herpes to Metzitza,[73] and that attempts to limit this practice infringe on religious freedom.[74][75][76]

The practice has become a controversy in both secular and Jewish medical ethics. The ritual of metzitzah is found in Mishnah Shabbat 19:2, which lists it as one of the four steps involved in the circumcision rite. Rabbi Moses Sofer, also known as the Chatam Sofer (1762–1839), observed that the Talmud states that the rationale for this part of the ritual was hygienic — i.e., to protect the health of the child. The Chatam Sofer issued a leniency (Heter) that some consider to have been conditional, to perform metzitzah with a sponge to be used instead of oral suction in a letter to his student, Rabbi Lazar Horowitz of Vienna. This letter was never published among Rabbi Sofer’s responsa but rather in the secular journal Kochvei Yitzchok.[77][78] along with letters from Dr. Wertheimer, the chief doctor of the Viennese General Hospital. It relates the story that a mohel (who was suspected of transmitting herpes via metzizah to infants) was checked several times and never found to have signs of the disease and that a ban was requested because of the «possibility of future infections».[79] Moshe Schick (1807–1879), a student of Moses Sofer, states in his book of Responsa, She’eilos u’teshuvos Maharam Schick (Orach Chaim 152,) that Moses Sofer gave the ruling in that specific instance only because the mohel refused to step down and had secular government connections that prevented his removal in favor of another mohel, and the Heter may not be applied elsewhere. He also states (Yoreh Deah 244) that the practice is possibly a Sinaitic tradition, i.e., Halacha l’Moshe m’Sinai. Other sources contradict this claim, with copies of Moses Sofer’s responsa making no mention of the legal case or of his ruling applying in only one situation. Rather, that responsa makes quite clear that «metzizah» was a health measure and should never be employed where there is a health risk to the infant.[80]

Chaim Hezekiah Medini, after corresponding with the greatest Jewish sages of the generation, concluded the practice to be Halacha l’Moshe m’Sinai and elaborates on what prompted Moses Sofer to give the above ruling.[81] He tells the story that a student of Moses Sofer, Lazar Horowitz, Chief Rabbi of Vienna at the time and author of the responsa Yad Elazer, needed the ruling because of a governmental attempt to ban circumcision completely if it included metztitzah b’peh. He therefore asked Sofer to give him permission to do brit milah without metzitzah b’peh. When he presented the defense in secular court, his testimony was erroneously recorded to mean that Sofer stated it as a general ruling.[82] The Rabbinical Council of America (RCA), which claims to be the largest American organization of Orthodox rabbis, published an article by mohel Dr Yehudi Pesach Shields in its summer 1972 issue of Tradition magazine, calling for the abandonment of Metzitzah b’peh.[83] Since then the RCA has issued an opinion that advocates methods that do not involve contact between the mohel’s mouth and the infant’s genitals, such as the use of a sterile syringe, thereby eliminating the risk of infection.[67] According to the Chief Rabbinate of Israel[84] and the Edah HaChareidis[85] metzitzah b’peh should still be performed.

The practice of metzitzah b’peh posed a serious risk in the transfer of herpes from mohelim to eight Israeli infants, one of whom suffered brain damage.[69][86] When three New York City infants contracted herpes after metzizah b’peh by one mohel and one of them died, New York authorities took out a restraining order against the mohel requiring use of a sterile glass tube, or pipette.[57][87] The mohel’s attorney argued that the New York Department of Health had not supplied conclusive medical evidence linking his client with the disease.[87][88] In September 2005, the city withdrew the restraining order and turned the matter over to a rabbinical court.[89] Dr. Thomas Frieden, the Health Commissioner of New York City, wrote, «There exists no reasonable doubt that ‘metzitzah b’peh’ can and has caused neonatal herpes infection….The Health Department recommends that infants being circumcised not undergo metzitzah b’peh.»[90] In May 2006, the Department of Health for New York State issued a protocol for the performance of metzitzah b’peh.[91] Dr. Antonia C. Novello, Commissioner of Health for New York State, together with a board of rabbis and doctors, worked, she said, to «allow the practice of metzizah b’peh to continue while still meeting the Department of Health’s responsibility to protect the public health.»[92] Later in New York City in 2012 a 2-week-old baby died of herpes because of metzitzah b’peh.[93]

In three medical papers done in Israel, Canada, and the US, oral suction following circumcision was suggested as a cause in 11 cases of neonatal herpes.[69][94][95] Researchers noted that prior to 1997, neonatal herpes reports in Israel were rare, and that the late incidences[spelling?] were correlated with the mothers carrying the virus themselves.[69] Rabbi Doctor Mordechai Halperin implicates the «better hygiene and living conditions that prevail among the younger generation,» which lowered to 60% the rate of young Israeli Chareidi mothers who carry the virus. He explains that an «absence of antibodies in the mothers’ blood means that their newborn sons received no such antibodies through the placenta, and therefore are vulnerable to infection by HSV-1.»[96]

Barriers[edit]

Because of the risk of infection, some rabbinical authorities have ruled that the traditional practice of direct contact should be replaced by using a sterile tube between the wound and the mohel’s mouth, so there is no direct oral contact. The Rabbinical Council of America, the largest group of Modern Orthodox rabbis, endorses this method.[97] The RCA paper states: «Rabbi Schachter even reports that Rav Yosef Dov Soloveitchik reports that his father, Rav Moshe Soloveitchik, would not permit a mohel to perform metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact, and that his grandfather, Rav Chaim Soloveitchik, instructed mohelim in Brisk not to do metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact. However, although Rav Yosef Dov Soloveitchik also generally prohibited metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact, he did not ban it by those who insisted upon it.» The sefer Mitzvas Hametzitzah[98] by Rabbi Sinai Schiffer of Baden, Germany, states that he is in possession of letters from 36 major Russian (Lithuanian) rabbis that categorically prohibit Metzitzah with a sponge and require it to be done orally. Among them is Rabbi Chaim Halevi Soloveitchik of Brisk.

In September 2012, the New York Department of Health unanimously ruled that the practice of metztizah b’peh should require informed consent from the parent or guardian of the child undergoing the ritual.[99] Prior to the ruling, several hundred rabbis, including Rabbi David Neiderman, the executive director of the United Jewish Organization of Williamsburg, signed a declaration stating that they would not inform parents of the potential dangers that came with metzitzah b’peh, even if informed consent became law.[100]

In a motion for preliminary injunction with intent to sue, filed against New York City Department of Health & Mental Hygiene, affidavits by Awi Federgruen,[101][102] Brenda Breuer,[103][104] and Daniel S. Berman[105][106] argued that the study on which the department passed its conclusions is flawed.[107][108][109][110]

The «informed consent» regulation was challenged in court. In January 2013 the U.S. District court ruled that the law did not specifically target religion and therefore must not pass strict scrutiny. The ruling was appealed to the Court of Appeals.[111]

On August 15, 2014, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the decision by the lower court, and ruled that the regulation does have to be reviewed under strict scrutiny to determine whether it infringes on Orthodox Jews’ freedom of religion.[112]

On September 9, 2015, after coming to an agreement with the community The New York City Board of Health voted to repeal the informed consent regulation.[113]

Hatafat dam brit[edit]

A brit milah is more than circumcision; it is a sacred ritual in Judaism, as distinguished from its non-ritual requirement in Islam. One ramification is that the brit is not considered complete unless a drop of blood is actually drawn. The standard medical methods of circumcision through constriction do not meet the requirements of the halakhah for brit milah, because they are done with hemostasis, i.e., they stop the flow of blood. Moreover, circumcision alone, in the absence of the brit milah ceremony, does not fulfill the requirements of the mitzvah. Therefore, in cases involving a Jew who was circumcised outside of a brit milah, an already-circumcised convert, or an aposthetic (born without a foreskin) individual, the mohel draws a symbolic drop of blood (Hebrew: הטפת דם, hatafat-dam) from the penis at the point where the foreskin would have been or was attached.[114]

Milah L’shem Giur[edit]

Set of brit milah implements, Göttingen city museum

A milah l’shem giur is a «circumcision for the purpose of conversion». In Orthodox Judaism, this procedure is usually done by adoptive parents for adopted boys who are being converted as part of the adoption or by families with young children converting together. It is also required for adult converts who were not previously circumcised, e.g., those born in countries where circumcision at birth is not common. The conversion of a minor is valid in both Orthodox and Conservative Judaism until a child reaches the age of majority (13 for a boy, 12 for a girl); at that time the child has the option of renouncing his conversion and Judaism, and the conversion will then be considered retroactively invalid. He must be informed of his right to renounce his conversion if he wishes. If he does not make such a statement, it is accepted that the boy is halakhically Jewish. Orthodox rabbis will generally not convert a non-Jewish child raised by a mother who has not converted to Judaism.[115]

The laws of conversion and conversion-related circumcision in Orthodox Judaism have numerous complications, and authorities recommend that a rabbi be consulted well in advance.

In Conservative Judaism, the milah l’shem giur procedure is also performed for a boy whose mother has not converted, but with the intention that the child be raised Jewish. This conversion of a child to Judaism without the conversion of the mother is allowed by Conservative interpretations of halakha. Conservative Rabbis will authorize it only under the condition that the child be raised as a Jew in a single-faith household. Should the mother convert, and if the boy has not yet reached his third birthday, the child may be immersed in the mikveh with the mother, after the mother has already immersed, to become Jewish. If the mother does not convert, the child may be immersed in a mikveh, or body of natural waters, to complete the child’s conversion to Judaism. This can be done before the child is even one year old. If the child did not immerse in the mikveh, or the boy was too old, then the child may choose of their own accord to become Jewish at age 13 as a Bar Mitzvah, and complete the conversion then.[116]

  • The ceremony, when performed l’shem giur, does not have to be performed on a particular day, and does not override Shabbat and Jewish Holidays.[117][118]
  • In Orthodox Judaism, there is a split of authorities on whether the child receives a Hebrew name at the Brit ceremony or upon immersion in the Mikvah. According to Zichron Brit LeRishonim, naming occurs at the Brit with a different formula than the standard Brit Milah. The more common practice among Ashkenazic Jews follows Rabbi Moshe Feinstein, with naming occurring at immersion.

Where the procedure was performed but not followed by immersion or other requirements of the conversion procedure (e.g., in Conservative Judaism, where the mother has not converted), if the boy chooses to complete the conversion at Bar Mitzvah, a milah l’shem giur performed when the boy was an infant removes the obligation to undergo either a full brit milah or hatafat dam brit.

Controlling male sexuality[edit]

The desire to control male sexuality has been central to Milah throughout history. Jewish theologians, philosophers, and ethicists have often justified the practice by claiming that the ritual substantially reduces male sexual pleasure and desire.[119][120][121][122][123][124]

The political scientist Thomas Pangle concluded:[119]

As Maimonides — the greatest legal scholar, and also the preeminent medical authority, in traditional Judaism — teaches, the most obvious purpose of circumcision is the weakening of the male sexual capacity and pleasure… Closely related would appear to be the aim of setting before any potential adult male convert the trial of submitting to a mark that incurs shame among most if not all other peoples, as well as being frighteningly painful: «Now a man does not perform this act upon himself or upon a son of his unless it be in consequence of a genuine belief… Finally, this mark, and the gulf it establishes, not only distinguishes but unifies the chosen people. The peculiar nature of the pain, of the debility, and of the shame serves to underline the fact that dedication to God calls for a severe mastery over and ruthless subordination of sexual appetite and pleasure. It is surely no accident, Maimonides observes in the same passage just quoted, it was the chaste Abraham who was the first to be called upon to enact ritual circumcision. But of course we must add since the commandment applies to Ishmael as well as to Issac, circumcision is the mark uniting those singular peoples, descended from Abraham, who recall not only his chastity but above all his dread in the presence of God; who share in that dread, and who understand the dread and the circumcision to be in part their response as mortal, hence reproductive, hence sexual creatures — created in the image of God — to the presence of the holy or pure God Who as Creator utterly transcends His mortal, reproductive creatures, and especially their sexuality.

The Jewish philosopher Philo Judaeus argued that Milah is a way to «mutilate the organ» in order to eliminate «all superfluous and excessive pleasure.»[120][121][125]

Similarly, while not claiming that circumcision limited sexual pleasure, Maimonides proposed that two important purposes of circumcision are to temper sexual desire and to join in an affirmation of faith and the covenant of Abraham:[126][127]

Visible symbol of a covenant[edit]

Rabbi Saadia Gaon considers something to be «complete» if it lacks nothing, but also has nothing that is unneeded. He regards the foreskin an unneeded organ that God created in man, and so by amputating it, the man is completed.[128] The author of Sefer ha-Chinuch[129] provides three reasons for the practice of circumcision:

  1. To complete the form of man, by removing what he claims to be a redundant organ;
  2. To mark the chosen people, so that their bodies will be different as their souls are. The organ chosen for the mark is the one responsible for the sustenance of the species.
  3. The completion effected by circumcision is not congenital, but left to the man. This implies that as he completes the form of his body, so can he complete the form of his soul.

Talmud professor Daniel Boyarin offered two explanations for circumcision. One is that it is a literal inscription on the Jewish body of the name of God in the form of the letter «yud» (from «yesod»). The second is that the act of bleeding represents a feminization of Jewish men, significant in the sense that the covenant represents a marriage between Jews and (a symbolically male) God.[130]

Other reasons[edit]

In Of the Special Laws, Book 1, the Jewish philosopher Philo additionally gave other reasons for the practice of circumcision.[125]

He attributes four of the reasons to «men of divine spirit and wisdom.» These include the idea that circumcision:

  1. Protects against disease,
  2. Secures cleanliness «in a way that is suited to the people consecrated to God,»
  3. Causes the circumcised portion of the penis to resemble a heart, thereby representing a physical connection between the «breath contained within the heart [that] is generative of thoughts, and the generative organ itself [that] is productive of living beings,» and
  4. Promotes prolificness by removing impediments to the flow of semen.
  5. «Is a symbol of a man’s knowing himself.»

Judaism, Christianity, and the Early Church (4 BCE – 150 CE)[edit]

The 1st-century Jewish author Philo Judaeus defended Jewish circumcision on several grounds. He thought that circumcision should be done as early as possible as it would not be as likely to be done by someone’s own free will. He claimed that the foreskin prevented semen from reaching the vagina and so should be done as a way to increase the nation’s population. He also noted that circumcision should be performed as an effective means to reduce sexual pleasure.[120][121][122][123]

There was also division in Pharisaic Judaism between Hillel the Elder and Shammai on the issue of circumcision of proselytes.[131]

According to the Gospel of Luke, Jesus was circumcised on the 8th day.

After eight days had passed, it was time to circumcise the child; and he was called Jesus, the name given by the angel before he was conceived in the womb.

— Luke 2:21[132]

According to saying 53 of the Gospel of Thomas,[133][134]

His disciples said to him, «is circumcision useful or not?» He said to them, «If it were useful, their father would produce children already circumcised from their mother. Rather, the true circumcision in spirit has become profitable in every respect.»

Foreskin was considered a sign of beauty, civility, and masculinity throughout the Greco-Roman world; it was custom to spend an hour a day or so exercising nude in the gymnasium and in Roman baths; many Jewish men did not want to be seen in public deprived of their foreskins, where matters of business and politics were discussed.[135] To expose one’s glans in public was seen as indecent, vulgar, and a sign of sexual arousal and desire.[15][136][135] Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman culture widely found circumcision to be barbaric, cruel, and utterly repulsive in nature.[15][136][137][138] By the period of the Maccabees, many Jewish men attempted to hide their circumcisions through the process of epispasm due to the circumstances of the period, although Jewish religious writers denounced these practices as abrogating the covenant of Abraham in 1 Maccabees and the Talmud.[15][135] After Christianity and Second Temple Judaism split apart from one another, Milah was declared spiritually unnecessary as a condition of justification by Christian writers such as Paul the Apostle and subsequently in the Council of Jerusalem, while it further increased in importance for Jews.[15]

In the mid-2nd century CE, the Tannaim, the successors of the newly ideologically dominant Pharisees, introduced and made mandatory a secondary step of circumcision known as the Periah.[15][139][1][2] Without it circumcision was newly declared to have no spiritual value.[1] This new form removed as much of the inner mucosa as possible, the frenulum and its corresponding delta from the penis, and prevented the movement of shaft skin, in what creates a «low and tight» circumcision.[15][52] It was intended to make it impossible to restore the foreskin.[15][139][1] This is the form practiced among the large majority of Jews today, and, later, became a basis for the routine neonatal circumcisions performed in the United States.[15][139]

The steps, justifications, and imposition of the practice have dramatically varied throughout history; commonly cited reasons for the practice have included it being a way to control male sexuality by reducing sexual pleasure and desire, as a visual marker of the covenant of the pieces, as a metaphor for mankind perfecting creation, and as a means to promote fertility.[14][2][15][119][120] The original version in Judaic history was either a ritual nick or cut done by a father to the acroposthion, the part of the foreskin that overhangs the glans penis. This form of genital nicking or cutting, known as simply milah, became adopted among Jews by the Second Temple period and was the predominant form until the second century CE.[15][139][1][140] The notion of milah being linked to a biblical covenant is generally believed to have originated in the 6th century BCE as a product of the Babylonian captivity; the practice likely lacked this significance among Jews before the period.[14][15][16][17]

Reform Judaism[edit]

The Reform societies established in Frankfurt and Berlin regarded circumcision as barbaric and wished to abolish it. However, while prominent rabbis such as Abraham Geiger believed the ritual to be barbaric and outdated, they refrained from instituting any change in this matter. In 1843, when a father in Frankfurt refused to circumcise his son, rabbis of all shades in Germany stated it was mandated by Jewish law; even Samuel Holdheim affirmed this.[141] By 1871, Reform rabbinic leadership in Germany reasserted «the supreme importance of circumcision in Judaism,» while affirming the traditional viewpoint that non-circumcised Jews are Jews nonetheless. Although the issue of circumcision of converts continues to be debated, the necessity of Brit Milah for Jewish infant boys has been stressed in every subsequent Reform rabbis manual or guide.[142] Since 1984 Reform Judaism has trained and certified over 300 of their own practicing mohalim in this ritual.[143][144]

Criticism and legality[edit]

Criticism[edit]

Among Jews[edit]

A growing number of contemporary Jews have chosen not to circumcise their sons.[145][146][147][148][149][150]

Among the reasons for their choice is the claim that circumcision is a form of bodily and sexual harm forced on men and violence against helpless infants, a violation of children’s rights, and their opinion that circumcision is a dangerous, unnecessary, painful, traumatic and stressful event for the child, which can cause even further psychophysical complications down the road, including serious disability and even death.[151][152][153][154] They are assisted by a number of Reform, Liberal, and Reconstructionist rabbis, and have developed a welcoming ceremony that they call the Brit shalom («Covenant [of] Peace») for such children,[153][155][149] also accepted by Humanistic Judaism.[156][157] The ceremony of Brit shalom is not officially approved of by the Reform or Reconstructionist rabbinical organizations, who make the recommendation that male infants should be circumcised, though the issue of converts remains controversial[158][159] and circumcision of converts is not mandatory in either movement.[160]

The connection of the Reform movement to an anti-circumcision, pro-symbolic stance is a historical one.[58] From the early days of the movement in Germany and Eastern Europe,[58][161] some classical Reformers hoped to replace ritual circumcision «with a symbolic act, as has been done for other bloody practices, such as the sacrifices».[162] In the US, an official Reform resolution in 1893 announced converts are no longer mandated to undergo the ritual,[163] and this ambivalence toward the practice has carried over to classical-minded Reform Jews today. In Elyse Wechterman’s essay A Plea for Inclusion, she argues that, even in the absence of circumcision, committed Jews should never be turned away, especially by a movement «where no other ritual observance is mandated.» She goes on to advocate an alternate covenant ceremony, brit atifah, for both boys and girls as a welcoming ritual into Judaism.[164] With a continuing negativity towards circumcision still present within a minority of modern-day Reform, Judaic scholar Jon Levenson has warned that if they «continue to judge brit milah to be not only medically unnecessary but also brutalizing and mutilating … the abhorrence of it expressed by some early Reform leaders will return with a vengeance», proclaiming that circumcision will be «the latest front in the battle over the Jewish future in America».[165]

Many European Jewish fathers during the nineteenth century chose not to circumcise their sons, including Theodor Herzl.[166][151] However, unlike many other forms of religious observance, it remained one of the last rituals Jewish communities could enforce. In most of Europe, both the government and the unlearned Jewish masses believed circumcision to be a rite akin to baptism, and the law allowed communities not to register uncircumcised children as Jewish. This legal maneuver spurred several debates addressing the advisibility of its use, since many parents later chose to convert to Christianity. In early 20th-century Russia, Chaim Soloveitchik advised his colleagues to reject this measure, stating that uncircumcised Jewish males are no less Jewish than Jews who violate other commandments.[141] Since the 18th century, multiple Jewish philosophers and theologians have criticized the practice of circumcision, advocating an abolishment of the practice and alternatives such as Brit Shalom.[167][168] Circumcision rates are near-universal among Jews.[12]

Brit shalom (Hebrew: ברית שלום; «Covenant of Peace»), also called alternative brit, brit ben, brit chayim, brit tikkun, or bris in Yiddish and Ashkenazi Hebrew, refers to a range of newly created naming ceremonies for self-identified Jewish families that involve rejecting the traditional Jewish rite of circumcision.[169][170][171][172][173] There is no universally agreed upon form of Brit Shalom. Brit shalom ceremonies are performed by a rabbi or a lay person; in this context, rabbi does not necessarily imply belief in God, as some celebrants belong to Humanistic Judaism.[174] Brit shalom is recognized by secular Jewish organizations affiliated with Humanistic Judaism like the International Institute for Secular Humanistic Judaism, Congress of Secular Jewish Organizations, and Society for Humanistic Judaism.

The actual number of brit shalom ceremonies performed per year is unknown. Filmmaker Eli Ungar-Sargon, who is opposed to circumcision, said in 2011, regarding its current popularity, that «calling it a marginal phenomenon would be generous.»[175] Its popularity in the United States, where it has been promoted by groups such as Beyond the Bris and Jews Against Circumcision,[176][177] is increasing, however.[178][179][180] The first known ceremony was celebrated by Rabbi Sherwin Wine, the founder of the Society for Humanistic Judaism, around 1970.[181]

Outside Jews[edit]

In 2017, Iceland proposed a bill banning circumcision especially for non-medical reasons,[182] with a six-year jail term for anyone carrying out a circumcision[183] for non-medical reasons, as well as anyone guilty of removing a child’s sexual organs in whole or in part, arguing that the practice violates the child’s rights.[182] Religious groups have condemned the bill because it goes against their traditions.[184]

See also[edit]

  • Circumcision of Jesus
  • Khitan (circumcision)
  • History of male circumcision

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f Hirsch, Emil; Kohler, Kaufmann; Jacobs, Joseph; Friedenwald, Aaron; Broydé, Isaac (1906). «Circumcision: The Cutting Away». The Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 13, 2020. In order to prevent the obliteration of the «seal of the covenant» on the flesh, as circumcision was henceforth called, the Rabbis, probably after the war of Bar Kokba (see Yeb. l.c.; Gen. R. xlvi.), instituted the «peri’ah» (the laying bare of the glans), without which circumcision was declared to be of no value (Shab. xxx. 6).
  2. ^ a b c d Gollaher, David (2001). Circumcision: A History Of The World’s Most Controversial Surgery. United States: Basic Books. pp. 1–30. ISBN 978-0-465-02653-1.
  3. ^ a b Tractate Nedarim 32a
  4. ^ Harlow, Daniel; Collins, John (2010). «Circumcision». The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-4674-6609-7.
  5. ^ Hamilton, Victor (1990). The Book of Genesis, Chapters 1-17. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 473. ISBN 978-0-8028-2521-6. In fact, circumcision is only one of two performative commands, the neglect of which bring the kareth penalty. (The other is the failure to be cleansed from corpse contamination, umb. 19:11-22.)
  6. ^ Mark, Elizabeth (2003). «Frojmovic/Travelers to the Circumcision». The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite. Brandeis University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-58465-307-3. Circumcision became the single most important commandment… the one without which… no Jew could attain the world to come.
  7. ^ a b c d Rosner, Fred (2003). Encyclopedia of Jewish Medical Ethics. Feldheim Publishers. p. 196. ISBN 978-1-58330-592-8. Several eras in subsequent Jewish history were associated with forced conversions and with prohibitions against ritual circumcision… Jews endangered their lives during such times and exerted strenuous efforts to nullify such edicts. When they succeeded, they celebrated by declaring a holiday. Throughout most of history, Jews never doubted their obligation to observe circumcision… [those who attempted to reverse it or failed to perform the ritual were called] voiders of the covenant of Abraham our father, and they have no portion in the World to Come.
  8. ^ Oliver, Isaac W. (2013-05-14). «Forming Jewish Identity by Formulating Legislation for Gentiles». Journal of Ancient Judaism. 4 (1): 105–132. doi:10.30965/21967954-00401005. ISSN 1869-3296.
  9. ^ a b Wilson, Robin (2018). The Contested Place of Religion in Family Law. Cambridge University Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-108-41760-0. Jews have a long history of suffering punishment at the hands of government authorities for engaging in circumcision. Muslims have also experienced suppression of their identities through suppression of this religious practice.
  10. ^ a b Livingston, Michael (2021). Dreamworld or Dystopia: The Nordic Model and Its Influence in the 21st Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-108-75726-3. In Jewish history, the banning of circumcision (brit mila) has historically been a first step toward more extreme and violent forms of persecution.
  11. ^ «What Is Hanukkah?». Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center. In the second century BCE, the Holy Land was ruled by the Seleucids (Syrian-Greeks), who tried to force the people of Israel to accept Greek culture and beliefs instead of mitzvah observance and belief in G‑d. Against all odds, a small band of faithful but poorly armed Jews, led by Judah the Maccabee, defeated one of the mightiest armies on earth, drove the Greeks from the land, reclaimed the Holy Temple in Jerusalem and rededicated it to the service of G‑d. … To commemorate and publicize these miracles, the sages instituted the festival of Chanukah.
  12. ^ a b Cohen-Almagor, Raphael (9 November 2020). «Should liberal government regulate male circumcision performed in the name of Jewish tradition?». SN Social Sciences. 1 (1): 8. doi:10.1007/s43545-020-00011-7. ISSN 2662-9283. S2CID 228911544. Protagonists and critics of male circumcision agree on some things and disagree on many others… They also do not underestimate the importance of male circumcision for the relevant communities…. Even the most critical voices of male circumcision do not suggest putting a blanket ban on the practice as they understand that such a ban, very much like the 1920–1933 prohibition laws in the United States, would not be effective… Protagonists and critics of male circumcision debate whether the practice is morally acceptable… They assign different weights to harm as well as to medical risks and to non-medical benefits. The different weights to risks and benefits conform to their underlying views about the practices… Protagonists and critics disagree about the significance of medical reasons for circumcision…
  13. ^ Gollaher, David, 1949- (2000). Circumcision : a history of the world’s most controversial surgery. New York: Basic Books. p. 2. ISBN 0-465-04397-6. OCLC 42040798.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ a b c d Karris, Robert (1992). The Collegeville Bible Commentary: Old Testament. United States: Liturgical Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-8146-2210-0. Circumcision only became an important sign of the covenant during the Babylonian Exile; it is doubtful that it always had this significance for Israel.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Glick, Leonard (2005). Marked in Your Flesh: Circumcision from Ancient Judea to Modern America. United States: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–3, 15–35. ISBN 978-0-19-517674-2.
  16. ^ a b c Eilberg-Schwartz, Howard (1990). The Savage in Judaism: An Anthropology of Israelite Religion and Ancient Judaism. United States: Indiana University Press. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-253-31946-3.
  17. ^ a b c Glick, Nansi S. (2006), «Zipporah and the Bridegroom of Blood: Searching for the Antecedents of Jewish Circumcision», Bodily Integrity and the Politics of Circumcision, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 37–47, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4916-3_3, ISBN 978-1-4020-4915-6, retrieved December 21, 2020
  18. ^ Stavrakopoulou, Francesca (2012). King Manasseh and Child Sacrifice: Biblical Distortions of Historical Realities. Germany: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 198–200, 282–283, 305–306, et al. ISBN 978-3-11-089964-1.
  19. ^ Barker, Margaret (2012). The Mother of the Lord: Volume 1: The Lady in the Temple. T&T Clark. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-567-36246-9. It seems that in the biblical tradition… child sacrifice was replaced by circumcision…
  20. ^ Edinger, Edward (1986). The Bible and the Psyche: Individuation Symbolism in the Old Testament. Inner City Books. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-919123-23-6.
  21. ^ Genesis 17:10–14
  22. ^ Leviticus 12:3
  23. ^ Joshua 5:9.
  24. ^ I Samuel 14:6, 31:4; II Samuel 1:20
  25. ^ Isaiah 52:1
  26. ^ Leviticus 26:41, «their uncircumcised hearts»; compare Jeremiah 9:25; Ezekiel 44:7, 9
  27. ^ Leviticus 19:23
  28. ^ Genesis 17:1–14
  29. ^ Exodus 12:48
  30. ^ Genesis 34:14–16
  31. ^ «Tractate Shabbat: Chapter 19». Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 2022-07-23.
  32. ^ «Circumcision.» Mark Popovsky. Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion. Ed. David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden and Stanton Marlan. New York: Springer, 2010. pp. 153–54.
  33. ^ Talmud Avodah Zarah 26b; Menachot 42a; Maimonides’ Mishneh Torah, Milah, ii. 1; Shulkhan Arukh, Yoreh De’ah, l.c.
  34. ^ Lubrich, Naomi, ed. (2022). Birth Culture. Jewish Testimonies from Rural Switzerland and Environs (in German and English). Basel. pp. 54–123. ISBN 978-3-7965-4607-5.
  35. ^ «Berit Mila Program of Reform Judaism». 2013-10-07. Archived from the original on 2013-10-07. Retrieved 2022-07-23.
  36. ^ «The Circumcision Procedure and Blessings – Performing the Bris Milah – The Handbook to Circumcision». Chabad.org. Archived from the original on 2012-01-16. Retrieved 2012-04-25.
  37. ^ a b  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). «Morbidity». The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
  38. ^ Ilani, Ofri (2008-05-12). «Traditional circumcision raises risk of infection, study shows». Haaretz. Archived from the original on 20 August 2009. Retrieved 15 August 2009.
  39. ^ Kreimer, Susan (2004-10-22). «In New Trend, Adult Emigrés Seek Ritual Circumcision». The Jewish Daily Forward. Retrieved 24 August 2015.
  40. ^ Reiner, Rami (2022). «A baby boy who dies before reaching eight [days] is circumcised with a flint or reed at his grave» (Shulḥan ‘Arukh, Yoreh De’ah 263:5): From Women’s Custom to Rabbinic Law». Journal of the Goldstein-Goren International Center for Jewish Thought. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  41. ^ a b Rabbi Yaakov Montrose. Halachic World – Volume 3: Contemporary Halachic topics based on the Parshah. «Lech Lecha – No Pain, No Bris?» Feldham Publishers 2011, pp. 29–32
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  43. ^ Harris, Patricia (June 11, 1999). «Study confirms that wine drops soothe boys during circumcision». J. The Jewish News of Northern California. Archived from the original on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
  44. ^ «Pain and Circumcision». The New York Times. January 3, 1998. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
  45. ^ Berger, Itai; Steinberg, Avraham (May 2002). «Neonatal mydriasis: intravenous lidocaine adverse reaction». J Child Neurol. 17 (5): 400–01. doi:10.1177/088307380201700520. PMID 12150593. S2CID 2169066.[dead link]
  46. ^ Rezvani, Massoud; Finkelstein, Yaron (2007). «Generalized seizures following topical lidocaine administration during circumcision: establishing causation». Paediatr Drugs. 9 (2): 125–27. doi:10.2165/00148581-200709020-00006. PMID 17407368. S2CID 45481923.
  47. ^ Beider, Alexander (2015). Origins of Yiddish Dialects. Oxford University Press. p. 153.
  48. ^ Øster, Jakob (April 1968). «Further Fate of the Foreskin». 43. Archives of Disease in Childhood: 200–02. Archived from the original on 2010-06-29. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  49. ^ Mishnah Shabbat 19:6. circumcised but did not perform priah, it is as if he did not circumcise.
    The Jerusalem Talmud there adds: «and is punished kareth!»
  50. ^ Circumcision Policy Statement Archived 2009-03-20 at the Wayback Machine of The American Academy of Pediatrics notes that «there are three methods of circumcision that are commonly used in the newborn male,» and that all three include «bluntly freeing the inner preputial epithelium from the epithelium of the glans,» to be later amputated with the foreskin.
  51. ^ Gracely-Kilgore, Katharine A. (May 1984). «Further Fate of the Foreskin». 5 (2). Nurse Practitioner: 4–22. Archived from the original on 2010-06-28. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  52. ^ a b «Styles – Judaism and Islam». Circlist. 2014-03-07. Archived from the original on 2014-05-15. Retrieved 2014-06-11.
  53. ^ Glick, Leonard B. (2005-06-30). Marked in Your Flesh: Circumcision from Ancient Judea to Modern America. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-19-517674-2. the rabbis go on to dedicate all of chapter 19 to circumcision .. milah, peri’ah, and metsitsah. This is the first text specifying peri’ah as an absolute requirement. The same chapter is where we first find mention of the warning that leaving even «shreds» of foreskin renders the procedure «invalid.» (note: section 19.2 from Moed tractate Shabbat (Talmud) is quoted)
  54. ^ Rabbah b. Isaac in the name of Rab. «71b». Talmud Bavli Tractate Yebamoth. The commandment of uncovering the corona at circumcision was not given to Abraham; for it is said, At that time the Lord said unto Joshua: ‘Make thee knives of flint etc.’ But is it not possible [that this applied to] those who were not previously circumcised; for it is written, For all the people that came out were circumcised, but all the people that were born etc.? — If so, why the expression. ‘Again!’ Consequently it must apply to the uncovering of the corona.
  55. ^ Werblowsky, R.J. Zwi; Wigoder, Geoffrey (1997). The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press.
  56. ^ Cohen, Shaye J.D (2005-09-06). Why Aren’t Jewish Women Circumcised?: Gender and Covenant in Judaism. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-520-21250-3. These mishniac requirements have three sources: the Torah, which requires circumcision (milah); the rabbis themselves, who added the requirement of completely uncovering the corona (peri’ah); and ancient medical beliefs about the treatment of wounds (suctioning, bandaging, cumin). The Torah demands circumcision but does not specify exactly what should be cut or how much.
  57. ^ a b c Hartog, Kelly (February 18, 2005). «Death Spotlights Old Circumcision Rite». The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles. Archived from the original on December 13, 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-22. Metzizah b’peh — loosely translated as oral suction — is the part of the circumcision ceremony where the mohel removes the blood from the baby’s member; these days the removal of the blood is usually done using a sterilized glass tube, instead of with the mouth, as the Talmud suggests.
  58. ^ a b c

    In the first half of the nineteenth century, various European governments considered regulating, if not banning, berit milah on the grounds that it posed potential medical dangers. In the 1840s, radical Jewish reformers in Frankfurt asserted that circumcision should no longer be compulsory. This controversy reached Russia in the 1880s. Russian Jewish physicians expressed concern over two central issues: the competence of those carrying out the procedure and the method used for metsitsah. Many Jewish physicians supported the idea of procedural and hygienic reforms in the practice, and they debated the question of physician supervision during the ceremony. Most significantly, many advocated carrying out metsitsah by pipette, not by mouth. In 1889, a committee on circumcision convened by the Russian Society for the Protection of Health, which included leading Jewish figures, recommended educating the Jewish public about the concerns connected with circumcision, in particular, the possible transmission of diseases such as tuberculosis and syphilis through the custom of metsitsah by mouth.
    Veniamin Portugalov, who—alone among Russian Jewish physicians—called for the abolition of circumcision, set off these discussions. Portugalov not only denied all medical claims regarding the sanitary advantages of circumcision but disparaged the practice as barbaric, likening it to pagan ritual mutilation. Ritual circumcision, he claimed, stood as a self-imposed obstacle to the Jews’ attainment of true equality with the other peoples of Europe.

  59. ^ Tractate Shabbos 133b
  60. ^ Rambam – Maimonides in his «book of laws» Laws of Milah Chapter 2, paragraph 2: «…and afterwards he sucks the circumcision until blood comes out from far places, in order not to come to danger, and anyone who does not suck, we remove him from practice.»
  61. ^ Rashi and others on Tractate Shabbos 173a and 173b
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  91. ^ «Circumcision Protocol Regarding the Prevention of Neonatal Herpes Transmission». Department of Health, New York State. November 2006. Archived from the original on February 5, 2007. Retrieved 2006-11-23. The person performing metzizah b’peh must do the following: Wipe around the outside of the mouth thoroughly, including the labial folds at the corners, with a sterile alcohol wipe, and then discard in a safe place. Wash hands with soap and hot water for 2–6 minutes. Within 5 minutes before metzizah b’peh, rinse mouth thoroughly with a mouthwash containing greater than 25% alcohol (for example, Listerine) and hold the rinse in mouth for 30 seconds or more before discarding it.
  92. ^ Novello, Antonia C. (May 8, 2006). «Dear Rabbi Letter». Department of Health, New York State. Archived from the original on February 18, 2007. Retrieved 2006-11-23. The meetings have been extremely helpful to me in understanding the importance of metzizah b’peh to the continuity of Jewish ritual practice, how the procedure is performed, and how we might allow the practice of metzizah b’peh to continue while still meeting the Department of Health’s responsibility to protect the public health. I want to reiterate that the welfare of the children of your community is our common goal and that it is not our intent to prohibit metzizah b’peh after circumcision, rather our intent is to suggest measures that would reduce the risk of harm, if there is any, for future circumcisions where metzizah b’peh is the customary procedure and the possibility of an infected mohel may not be ruled out. I know that successful solutions can and will be based on our mutual trust and cooperation.
  93. ^ Susan Donaldson James (March 12, 2012). «Baby Dies of Herpes in Ritual Circumcision By Orthodox Jews». abcnews.go.com. Archived from the original on April 19, 2017.
  94. ^ Rubin LG, Lanzkowsky P. Cutaneous neonatal herpes simplex infection associated with ritual circumcision. Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal. 2000. 19(3) 266–67.
  95. ^ Distel R, Hofer V, Bogger-Goren S, Shalit I, Garty BZ. Primary genital herpes simplex infection associated with Jewish ritual circumcision. Israel Medical Association Journal. 2003 Dec;5(12):893-4 Archived October 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  96. ^ Halperin, Mordechai (Winter 2006). Translated by Lavon, Yocheved. «Metzitzah B’peh Controversy: The View from Israel». Jewish Action. 67 (2): 25, 33–39. Archived from the original on March 6, 2012. Retrieved February 15, 2007. The mohel brings the baby’s organ into his mouth immediately after the excision of the foreskin and sucks blood from it vigorously. This action lowers the internal pressure in the tissues of the organ, in the blood vessels of the head of the organ and in the exposed ends of the arterioles that have just been cut. Thus, the difference between the pressure in the blood vessels in the base of the organ and the pressure in the blood vessels at its tip is increased. This requirement has deep religious significance as well as medical benefits….Immediately after incising or injuring an artery, the arterial walls contract and obstruct, or at least reduce, the flow of blood. Since the arterioles of the orlah, or the foreskin, branch off from the dorsal arteries (the arteries of the upper side of the organ), cutting away the foreskin can result in a temporary obstruction in these dorsal arteries. This temporary obstruction, caused by arterial muscle contraction, continues to develop into a more enduring blockage as the stationary blood begins to clot. The tragic result can be severe hypoxia (deprivation of the supply of blood and oxygen) of the glans penis.28 If the arterial obstruction becomes more permanent, gangrene follows; the baby may lose his glans, and it may even become a life-threatening situation. Such cases have been known to occur. Only by immediately clearing the blockage can one prevent such clotting from happening. Performing metzitzah immediately after circumcision lowers the internal pressure within the tissues and blood vessels of the glans, thus raising the pressure gradient between the blood vessels at the base of the organ and the blood vessels at its distal end—the glans as well as the excised arterioles of the foreskin, which branch off of the dorsal arteries. This increase in pressure gradient (by a factor of four to six!) can resolve an acute temporary blockage and restore blood flow to the glans, thus significantly reducing both the danger of immediate, acute hypoxia and the danger of developing a permanent obstruction by means of coagulation. How do we know when a temporary blockage has successfully been averted? When the «blood in the further reaches [i.e., the proximal dorsal artery] is extracted,» as Rambam has stated.
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  98. ^ The book was originally published in German, Die Ausübung der Mezizo, Frankfurt a.M. 1906; It was subsequently translated into Hebrew, reprinted in Jerusalem in 1966 under the title «Mitzvas Hametzitzah» and appended to the back of Dvar Sinai, a book written by the author’s grandson, Sinai Adler.
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  114. ^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De’ah, 263:4
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  121. ^ a b c Darby, Robert (2013). A Surgical Temptation:The Demonization of the Foreskin and the Rise of Circumcision in Britain. University of Chicago Press. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-226-10978-7. The view that circumcision had the effect of reducing sexual pleasure, and had even been instituted with this objective in mind, was both widely held in the nineteenth century and in accordance with traditional religious teaching. Both Philo and Maimondies had written to this effect, and Herbert Snow quoted the contemporary Dr. Asher… as stating that chastity was the moral objective of the alteration.
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  124. ^ Yanklowitz, Shmuly (2014). Soul of Jewish Social Justice. Urim Publications. p. 135. ISBN 9789655241860.
  125. ^ a b Philo of Alexandria; Colson, F.H. (trans.) (1937). Of the special laws, Book I (i and ii), in Works of Philo. Vol. VII. Loeb Classical Library: Harvard University Press. pp. 103–05. ISBN 978-0-674-99250-4.
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  127. ^ Maimonides, Moses, 1135–1204 (1974-12-15). The Guide of the Perplexed. Pines, Shlomo, 1908-1990,, Strauss, Leo, Bollingen Foundation Collection (Library of Congress). [Chicago]. ISBN 0-226-50230-9. OCLC 309924.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  128. ^ Gaon, Saadia; Rosenblatt, Samuel (trans.) (1958). «article III chapter 10». the Book of Beliefs and Opinions. Yale Judaica. ISBN 978-0-300-04490-4.
  129. ^ 2nd commandment
  130. ^ Boyarin, Daniel. «‘This We Know to Be the Carnal Israel’: Circumcision and the Erotic Life of God and Israel», Critical Inquiry. (Spring, 1992), 474–506.
  131. ^ «The Proselyte Who Comes». Jewish Ideas. Retrieved November 26, 2020.
  132. ^ Luke 2:21
  133. ^ Dominic Crossan, John (1999). The Birth of Christianity. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 327. ISBN 978-0-567-08668-6.
  134. ^ Pagels, Elaine (2004). Beyond Belief: The Secret Gospel of Thomas. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 234. ISBN 978-1-4000-7908-7.
  135. ^ a b c Hall, Robert (August 1992). «Epispasm: Circumcision in Reverse». Bible Review. 8 (4): 52–57.
  136. ^ a b

    Circumcised barbarians, along with any others who revealed the glans penis, were the butt of ribald humor. For Greek art portrays the foreskin, often drawn in meticulous detail, as an emblem of male beauty; and children with congenitally short foreskins were sometimes subjected to a treatment, known as epispasm, that was aimed at elongation.

    — Approaches to Ancient Judaism, New Series: Religious and Theological Studies (1993), p. 149, Scholars Press.

  137. ^ Rubin, Jody P. (July 1980). «Celsus’ Decircumcision Operation: Medical and Historical Implications». Urology. Elsevier. 16 (1): 121–4. doi:10.1016/0090-4295(80)90354-4. PMID 6994325. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
  138. ^ Fredriksen, Paula (2018). When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation. London: Yale University Press. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0-300-19051-9.
  139. ^ a b c d Kimmel, Michael (2005). The Gender of Desire: Essays on Male Sexuality. United States: State University of New York Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-7914-6337-6.
  140. ^ Baky Fahmy, Mohamed (2020). Normal and Abnormal Prepuce. Springer International Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-3-030-37621-5. …Brit Milah is just [ritually] nicking or amputating the protruding tip of the prepuce…
  141. ^ a b Judith Bleich, «The Circumcision Controversy in Classical Reform in Historical Context», KTAV Publishing House, 2007. pp. 1–28.
  142. ^ «Circumcision of Infants». Central Conference of American Rabbis. 1982. Archived from the original on 2012-03-15. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
  143. ^ Niebuhr, Gustav (June 28, 2001). «Reform Rabbis’ Vote Reflects Expanding Interest in Rituals». The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 30, 2013. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
  144. ^ «Berit Mila Program of Reform Judaism». National Association of American Mohalim. 2010. Archived from the original on 2013-10-07. Retrieved 2010-01-23.
  145. ^ Greenberg, Zoe (2017-07-25). «When Jewish Parents Decide Not to Circumcise». The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2017-09-14. Retrieved 2022-07-31.
  146. ^ Chernikoff, Helen (October 3, 2007). «Jewish «intactivists» in U.S. stop circumcising». Reuters. Archived from the original on December 27, 2008. Retrieved 2019-04-03.
  147. ^ Ahituv, Netta (2012-06-14). «Even in Israel, More and More Parents Choose Not to Circumcise Their Sons». Haaretz. Archived from the original on 2022-05-25. Retrieved 2022-07-31.
  148. ^ Kasher, Rani (23 August 2017). «It’s 2017. Time to Talk About Circumcision». Haaretz. Tel Aviv. Archived from the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
  149. ^ a b Oryszczuk, Stephen (28 February 2018). «The Jewish parents cutting out the bris». The Times of Israel. Jerusalem. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
  150. ^ Silvers, Emma (2012-01-06). «Brit shalom is catching on, for parents who dont want to circumcise their child». J. The Jewish News of Northern California. San Francisco Jewish Community Publications Inc. Archived from the original on 2022-07-29. Retrieved 2022-07-30.
  151. ^ a b Goldman, Ronald (1997). «Circumcision: A Source of Jewish Pain». Jewish Circumcision Resource Center. Jewish Spectator. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
  152. ^ Goodman, Jason (January 1999). «Jewish circumcision: an alternative perspective». BJU International. 83 (1: Supplement): 22–27. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1022.x. PMID 10349411. S2CID 29022100. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
  153. ^ a b Kimmel, Michael S. (May–June 2001). «The Kindest Un-Cut: Feminism, Judaism, and My Son’s Foreskin». Tikkun. 16 (3): 43–48. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
  154. ^ Boyle, Gregory J.; Svoboda, J. Steven; Price, Christopher P.; Turner, J. Neville (2000). «Circumcision of Healthy Boys: Criminal Assault?». Journal of Law and Medicine. 7: 301–310. Retrieved 22 November 2018.
  155. ^ Schonfeld, Victor (2014). «Jewish voices against circumcision getting stronger». Circinfo.org. Retrieved 2018-11-04.
  156. ^ Reiss, MD, Dr. Mark (2006). «Celebrants of Brit Shalom». Brit Shalom. Archived from the original on 2014-12-13. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
  157. ^ Goldman, PhD, Ron (2006). «Providers of Brit Shalom». Jews Against Circumcision. Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
  158. ^ Glickman, Mark (November 12, 2005). «B’rit Milah: A Jewish Answer to Modernity». Union for Reform Judaism. Archived from the original on October 15, 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-03.
  159. ^ Cohen, Rabbi Howard (May 20, 2002). «Bo: Defining Boundaries». Jewish Reconstructionist Federation. Archived from the original on November 13, 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-03.
  160. ^ Epstein, Lawrence (2007). «The Conversion Process». Calgary Jewish Community Council. Archived from the original on December 27, 2008. Retrieved 2007-11-03.
  161. ^ Gollaher, David (February 2001). «1, The Jewish Tradition«. Circumcision: A History Of The World’s Most Controversial Surgery. New York City: Basic Books. pp. 1–30. ISBN 978-0-465-02653-1.[permanent dead link]
  162. ^ Katz, Jacob (1998), Divine Law in Human Hands: Case Studies in Halakhic Flexibility. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, ISBN 978-9652239808
  163. ^ Meyer, Michael (1990). «Berit Mila within the History of the Reform Movement». In Barth, Lewis (ed.). Berit mila in the Reform context. United States: Berit Mila Board of Reform Judaism. pp. 140–149. ISBN 978-0-8216-5082-0. OCLC 1154140109 – via Internet Archive.
  164. ^ Mark, Elizabeth Wyner (2003) The Covenant of Circumcision. Lebanon, New Hampshire: Brandeis ISBN 1584653078
  165. ^ Levenson, Jon (March 2000). «The New Enemies of Circumcision», Commentary
  166. ^ Stewart, Desmond (1974), Theodor Herzl. New York: Doubleday, ISBN 978-0385088961
  167. ^ Glantz, Aaron (2011-07-29). «Increasingly, a Ritual Is Bypassed». The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2022-01-01. Retrieved 2021-07-29.
  168. ^ Greenberg, Zoe (2017-07-25). «When Jewish Parents Decide Not to Circumcise». The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2022-01-01. Retrieved 2021-07-29.
  169. ^ Boorstein, Michelle (2013-12-28). «A small but growing number of Jews are questioning the ancient ritual of circumcision». Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 2021-03-15. Retrieved 2022-07-31.
  170. ^ Ghert-Zand, Renee (2011-06-16). «The Jewish Opposition to Circumcision». The Forward. Retrieved 2022-07-30.
  171. ^ Harris, Ben (2021-10-07). «These Jews want to normalize not circumcising — and they want synagogues to help». Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Archived from the original on 2021-10-26. Retrieved 2022-07-30. A new organization launching this week aims to make that more likely. The group, called Bruchim (literally «blessed,» but part of a Hebrew phrase that essentially means «welcome»), is seeking to normalize the decision not to circumcise Jewish boys […] The group is an outgrowth of advocacy that Moss and Bruchim co-founder and executive director, Rebecca Wald, have been doing for decades. Moss first argued against Jewish circumcision in a 1990 essay, and together they outlined an alternative ceremony, brit shalom (literally «covenant of peace») in a 2015 book and distributed flyers at that year’s Reform movement convention outlining ways for synagogues to be more welcoming for families that had opted out of circumcision.
  172. ^ Victor, Jacob (2007-07-18). «Activists Up Efforts To Cut Circumcision Out of Bris Ritual». The Forward. Archived from the original on 2021-09-04. Retrieved 2022-07-30. After conducting his research, Wolfe decided to forgo circumcising his son. Instead, he arranged a so-called brit shalom ceremony, a newly created ritual that celebrates birth while omitting circumcision.
  173. ^ May, Ali (2019-07-17). «Child Protection Laws Are Clear –Except When It Comes To Male Circumcision». HuffPost UK. Retrieved 2022-08-03. Some Jewish parents have opted for an alternative to Bris Milah, called Brit Shalom, in which the boy is welcomed into the community in a ceremony, but he is not circumcised.
  174. ^ «LCSHJ Resolutions». International Institute for Secular Humanistic Judaism. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Society for Humanistic Judaism. 2016-01-22. Retrieved 2022-08-02. We, the Leadership Conference of Secular and Humanistic Jews, mindful of both our commitments to Jewish identity and to gender equality, affirm that:
    • We welcome into the Jewish community all who identify with the history, culture and fate of the Jewish people. Circumcision is not required for Jewish identity.
    • We support parents making informed decisions whether or not to circumcise their sons.
    • We affirm their right to choose, and we accept and respect their choice.
    • Naming and welcoming ceremonies should be egalitarian. We recommend separating circumcision from welcoming ceremonies.
    Approved April 2002
  175. ^ Lowenfeld, Jonah (2011-08-02). «Little-known non-cutting ritual appeals to some who oppose circumcision». Jewish Journal. Retrieved 2022-08-03.
  176. ^ «The Circumcision Debate». My Jewish Learning. Archived from the original on 2021-08-12. Retrieved 2022-07-30. According to a 2017 New York Times article, while «the great majority of Jewish parents still circumcise, and opting out remains almost taboo in much of the mainstream,» the practice is quietly coming under scrutiny from some Jews. The article noted that «a number of parents» who opted out of the circumcision «did not want to speak on the record about their decision, and some rabbis who had done alternative bris ceremonies asked not to be named publicly.»
  177. ^ «Jewish Voices: The Current Judaic Movement to End Circumcision». The Salem News. 2011-08-26. Archived from the original on 2022-03-06. Retrieved 2022-07-30.
  178. ^ Greenberg, Zoe (2017-07-25). «When Jewish Parents Decide Not to Circumcise». The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2017-09-14. Retrieved 2022-07-31.
  179. ^ Bradley Hagerty, Barbara (2011-07-25). «Circumcision: Rite Faces Modern Concerns». NPR. Retrieved 2022-08-02.
  180. ^ Silvers, Emma (2012-01-06). «Brit shalom is catching on, for parents who dont want to circumcise their child». J. The Jewish News of Northern California. San Francisco Jewish Community Publications Inc. Archived from the original on 2022-07-29. Retrieved 2022-07-30.
  181. ^ Lowenfeld, Jonah (2 August 2011). «Little-known non-cutting ritual appeals to some who oppose circumcision». The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles. LA. Archived from the original on 25 August 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2020. According to Gottfried, the earliest known brit shalom ceremony was performed around 1970 by her mentor, Rabbi Sherwin Wine, the founder of the Society for Humanistic Judaism.
  182. ^ a b «Iceland law to outlaw male circumcision sparks row over religious freedom». The Guardian. 2018-02-18. Retrieved 2021-03-19.
  183. ^ «Parents who circumcise male kids risk six-year jail term». Punch Newspapers. 2018-02-18. Retrieved 2021-03-19.
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External links[edit]

Media related to Brit milah at Wikimedia Commons

  • Chabad.org’s Brit Milah: The Covenant of Circumcision
  • Jewish Encyclopedia’s entry for Circumcision
  • Jewish Virtual Library’s Circumcision – Brit Milah
  • CircCentral, an online museum of Brit Milah instruments

The brit milah (Hebrew: בְּרִית מִילָה bərīṯ mīlā, pronounced [bʁit miˈla]; Ashkenazi pronunciation: Hebrew pronunciation: [bʁis ˈmilə], «covenant of circumcision»; Yiddish pronunciation: bris Yiddish pronunciation: [bʀɪs]) is the ceremony of circumcision in Judaism.[1] According to the Book of Genesis, God commanded the biblical patriarch Abraham to be circumcised, an act to be followed by his male descendants on the eighth day of life, symbolizing the covenant between God and the Jewish people.[1] Today, it is generally performed by a mohel on the eighth day after the infant’s birth and is followed by a celebratory meal known as seudat mitzvah.[2]

Brit Milah is considered among the most important and central commandments in Judaism, and the rite has played a central role in the formation and history of Jewish civilization. The Talmud, when discussing the importance of Brit Milah, compares it to being equal to all other mitzvot (commandments) based on the gematria for brit of 612.[3] Jews who voluntarily fail to undergo Brit Milah, barring extraordinary circumstances, are believed to suffer Kareth in Jewish theology: the extinction of the soul and denial of a share in the world to come.[4][5][6][7] Judaism does not see circumcision as a universal moral law. Rather, the commandment is exclusive to followers of Judaism and the Jewish people; Gentiles who follow the Noahide Laws are believed to have a portion in the World to Come.[8]

Conflicts between Jews and European civilizations (both Christian and Pagan) have occurred several times over Brit Milah.[7] There have been multiple campaigns of Jewish ethnic, cultural, and religious persecution over the subject, with subsequent bans and restrictions on the practice as an attempted means of forceful assimilation, conversion, and ethnocide, most famously in the Maccabean Revolt by the Seleucid Empire.[7][9][10] According to historian Michael Livingston, «In Jewish history, the banning of circumcision (brit mila) has historically been a first step toward more extreme and violent forms of persecution».[10] These periods have generally been linked to suppression of Jewish religious, ethnic, and cultural identity and subsequent «punishment at the hands of government authorities for engaging in circumcision».[9] The Maccabee victory in the Maccabean Revolt — ending the prohibition against circumcision — is celebrated in Hanukkah.[7][11]

Circumcision rates are near-universal among Jews.[12]

Origins (Unknown to 515 BCE)[edit]

«Isaac’s Circumcision», Regensburg Pentateuch, c1300

The origin of circumcision is not known with certainty; however, artistic and literary evidence from ancient Egypt suggests it was practiced in the ancient Near East from at least the Sixth Dynasty (ca. 2345–ca. 2181 BCE).[13] According to some scholars, it appears that it only appeared as a sign of the covenant during the Babylonian Exile.[14][15][16] Scholars who posit the existence of a hypothetical J source (likely composed during the seventh century BCE) of the Pentateuch in Genesis 15 hold that it would not have mentioned a covenant that involves the practice of circumcision. Only in the P source (likely composed during the sixth century BCE) of Genesis 17 does the notion of circumcision become linked to a covenant.[14][15][16][17]

Some scholars have argued that it originated as a replacement for child sacrifice.[15][17][18][19][20]

Biblical references[edit]

According to the Hebrew Bible, Adonai commanded the biblical patriarch Abraham to be circumcised, an act to be followed by his descendants:

This is My covenant, which ye shall keep, between Me and you and thy seed after thee: every male among you shall be circumcised. And ye shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin; and it shall be a token of a covenant betwixt Me and you. And he that is eight days old shall be circumcised among you, every male throughout your generations, he that is born in the house, or bought with money of any foreigner, that is not of thy seed. He that is born in thy house, and he that is bought with thy money, must needs be circumcised; and My covenant shall be in your flesh for an everlasting covenant. And the uncircumcised male who is not circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin, that soul shall be cut off from his people; he hath broken My covenant.

— Genesis 17:10–14[21]

Leviticus 12:3 says: «And in the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be circumcised.»[22]

According to the Hebrew Bible, it was «a reproach» for an Israelite to be uncircumcised.[23] The plural term arelim («uncircumcised») is used opprobriously, denoting the Philistines and other non-Israelites[24] and used in conjunction with tameh (unpure) for heathen.[25] The word arel («uncircumcised» [singular]) is also employed for «impermeable»;[26] it is also applied to the first three years’ fruit of a tree, which is forbidden.[27]

However, the Israelites born in the wilderness after the Exodus from Egypt were not circumcised. Joshua 5:2–9, explains, «all the people that came out» of Egypt were circumcised, but those «born in the wilderness» were not. Therefore, Joshua, before the celebration of the Passover, had them circumcised at Gilgal specifically before they entered Canaan. Abraham, too, was circumcised when he moved into Canaan.

The prophetic tradition emphasizes that God expects people to be good as well as pious, and that non-Jews will be judged based on their ethical behavior, see Noahide Law. Thus, Jeremiah 9:25–26 says that circumcised and uncircumcised will be punished alike by the Lord; for «all the nations are uncircumcised, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart.»

The penalty of non-observance is kareth (spiritual excision from the Jewish nation), as noted in Genesis 17:1-14.[28] Conversion to Judaism for non-Israelites in Biblical times necessitated circumcision, otherwise one could not partake in the Passover offering.[29] Today, as in the time of Abraham, it is required of converts in Orthodox, Conservative and Reform Judaism.[30]

As found in Genesis 17:1–14, brit milah is considered to be so important that should the eighth day fall on the Sabbath, actions that would normally be forbidden because of the sanctity of the day are permitted in order to fulfill the requirement to circumcise.[31] The Talmud, when discussing the importance of Milah, compares it to being equal to all other mitzvot (commandments) based on the gematria for brit of 612.[3]

Covenants in ancient times were sometimes sealed by severing an animal, with the implication that the party who breaks the covenant will suffer a similar fate. In Hebrew, the verb meaning «to seal a covenant» translates literally as «to cut». It is presumed by Jewish scholars that the removal of the foreskin symbolically represents such a sealing of the covenant.[32]

Ceremony[edit]

Mohel[edit]

A mohel is a Jew trained in the practice of brit milah, the «covenant of circumcision.» According to traditional Jewish law, in the absence of a grown free Jewish male expert, anyone who has the required skills is also authorized to perform the circumcision, if they are Jewish.[33][34] Yet, most streams of non-Orthodox Judaism allow female mohels, called mohalot (Hebrew: מוֹהֲלוֹת, plural of מוֹהֶלֶת mohelet, feminine of mohel), without restriction. In 1984, Deborah Cohen became the first certified Reform mohelet; she was certified by the Berit Mila program of Reform Judaism.[35]

Time and place[edit]

It is customary for the brit to be held in a synagogue, but it can also be held at home or any other suitable location. The brit is performed on the eighth day from the baby’s birth, taking into consideration that according to the Jewish calendar, the day begins at the sunset of the day before. If the baby is born on Sunday before sunset, the brit will be held the following Sunday. However, if the baby is born on Sunday night after sunset, the brit is on the following Monday. The brit takes place on the eighth day following birth even if that day is Shabbat or a holiday. A brit is traditionally performed in the morning, but it may be performed any time during daylight hours.[36]

Postponement for health reasons[edit]

Family circumcision set and trunk, ca. eighteenth century Wooden box covered in cow hide with silver implements: silver trays, clip, pointer, silver flask, spice vessel.

The Talmud explicitly instructs that a boy must not be circumcised if he had two brothers who died due to complications arising from their circumcisions,[37] and Maimonides says that this excluded paternal half-brothers. This may be due to a concern about hemophilia.[37]

An Israeli study found a high rate of urinary tract infections if the bandage is left on too long.[38]

If the child is born prematurely or has other serious medical problems, the brit milah will be postponed until the doctors and mohel deem the child strong enough for his foreskin to be surgically removed.

Adult circumcision[edit]

In recent years, the circumcision of adult Jews who were not circumcised as infants has become more common than previously thought.[39] In such cases, the brit milah will be done at the earliest date that can be arranged. The actual circumcision will be private, and other elements of the ceremony (e.g., the celebratory meal) may be modified to accommodate the desires of the one being circumcised.

Circumcision for the dead[edit]

According to Halacha, a baby who dies before they had time to circumcise him must be circumcised before burial. Several reasons were given for this commandment.[40] Some have written that there is no need for this circumcision.

Anesthetic[edit]

Most prominent acharonim rule that the mitzvah of brit milah lies in the pain it causes, and anesthetic, sedation, or ointment should generally not be used.[41] However, it is traditionally common to feed the infant a drop of wine or other sweet liquid to soothe him.[42][43]

Eliezer Waldenberg, Yechiel Yaakov Weinberg, Shmuel Wosner, Moshe Feinstein and others agree that the child should not be sedated, although pain relieving ointment may be used under certain conditions; Shmuel Wosner particularly asserts that the act ought to be painful, per Psalms 44:23.[41]

In a letter to the editor published in The New York Times on January 3, 1998, Rabbi Moshe David Tendler disagrees with the above and writes, «It is a biblical prohibition to cause anyone unnecessary pain». Rabbi Tendler recommends the use of an analgesic cream.[44] Lidocaine should not be used, however, because lidocaine has been linked to several pediatric near-death episodes.[45][46]

Kvatter[edit]

The title of kvater (Yiddish: קוואַטער) among Ashkenazi Jews is for the person who carries the baby from the mother to the father, who in turn carries him to the mohel. This honor is usually given to a couple without children, as a merit or segula (efficacious remedy) that they should have children of their own. The origin of the term is Middle High German gevater/gevatere («godfather»).[47]

Seudat Mitzah at a brit (1824 Czechia).

Seudat mitzvah[edit]

After the ceremony, a celebratory meal takes place. At the birkat hamazon, additional introductory lines, known as Nodeh Leshimcha, are added. These lines praise God and request the permission of God, the Torah, Kohanim and distinguished people present to proceed with the grace. When the four main blessings are concluded, special ha-Rachaman prayers are recited. They request various blessings by God that include:

  1. the parents of the baby, to help them raise him wisely;
  2. the sandek (companion of child);
  3. the baby boy to have strength and grow up to trust in God and perceive Him three times a year;
  4. the mohel for unhesitatingly performing the ritual;
  5. to send the Messiah in Judaism speedily in the merit of this mitzvah;
  6. to send Elijah the prophet, known as «The Righteous Kohen», so that God’s covenant can be fulfilled with the re-establishment of the throne of King David.

Ritual components[edit]

Uncovering, priah[edit]

At the neonatal stage, the inner preputial epithelium is still linked with the surface of the glans.[48]
The mitzvah is executed only when this epithelium is either removed, or permanently peeled back to uncover the glans.[49]
On medical circumcisions performed by surgeons, the epithelium is removed along with the foreskin,[50] to prevent post operative penile adhesion and its complications.[51]
However, on ritual circumcisions performed by a mohel, the epithelium is most commonly peeled off only after the foreskin has been amputated. This procedure is called priah (Hebrew: פריעה), which means: ‘uncovering’. The main goal of «priah» (also known as «bris periah»), is to remove as much of the inner layer of the foreskin as possible and prevent the movement of the shaft skin, what creates the look and function of what is known as a «low and tight» circumcision.[52]

According to Rabbinic interpretation of traditional Jewish sources,[53] the ‘priah’ has been performed as part of the Jewish circumcision since the Israelites first inhabited the Land of Israel.[54]

The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion states that many Hellenistic Jews attempted to restore their foreskins, and that similar action was taken during the Hadrianic persecution, a period in which a prohibition against circumcision was issued. The writers of the dictionary hypothesize that the more severe method practiced today was probably begun in order to prevent the possibility of restoring the foreskin after circumcision, and therefore the rabbis added the requirement of cutting the foreskin in periah.[55]

According to Shaye J. D. Cohen, the Torah only commands milah.[56] David Gollaher has written that the rabbis added the procedure of priah to discourage men from trying to restore their foreskins: «Once established, priah was deemed essential to circumcision; if the mohel failed to cut away enough tissue, the operation was deemed insufficient to comply with God’s covenant,» and «Depending on the strictness of individual rabbis, boys (or men thought to have been inadequately cut) were subjected to additional operations.»[2]

Engraving of a brit (1657)

Metzitzah[edit]

note: alternate spellings Metzizah[57] or Metsitsah[58] are also used to refer to this.

In the Metzitzah (Hebrew: מְצִיצָה), the guard is slid over the foreskin as close to the glans as possible to allow for maximum removal of the former without any injury to the latter. A scalpel is used to detach the foreskin. A tube is used for metzitzah
In addition to milah (the initial cut amputating the akroposthion) and p’riah and subsequent circumcision, mentioned above, the Talmud (Mishnah Shabbat 19:2) mentions a third step, metzitzah, translated as suction, as one of the steps involved in the circumcision rite. The Talmud writes that a «Mohel (Circumciser) who does not suck creates a danger, and should be dismissed from practice».[59][60] Rashi on that Talmudic passage explains that this step is in order to draw some blood from deep inside the wound to prevent danger to the baby.[61]
There are other modern antiseptic and antibiotic techniques—all used as part of the brit milah today—which many say accomplish the intended purpose of metzitzah, however, since metzitzah is one of the four steps to fulfill Mitzvah, it continues to be practiced by a minority of Orthodox and Hassidic Jews.[62]

Metzitzah B’Peh (oral suction)[edit]

This has also been abbreviated as MBP.[63]

The ancient method of performing metzitzah b’peh (Hebrew: מְצִיצָה בְּפֶה)—or oral suction[64][65]—has become controversial. The process has the mohel place his mouth directly on the infant’s genital wound to draw blood away from the cut. The vast majority of Jewish circumcision ceremonies do not use metzitzah b’peh,[66] but some Haredi Jews continue to use it.[67][68][57] It has been documented that the practice poses a serious risk of spreading herpes to the infant.[69][70][71][72] Proponents maintain that there is no conclusive evidence that links herpes to Metzitza,[73] and that attempts to limit this practice infringe on religious freedom.[74][75][76]

The practice has become a controversy in both secular and Jewish medical ethics. The ritual of metzitzah is found in Mishnah Shabbat 19:2, which lists it as one of the four steps involved in the circumcision rite. Rabbi Moses Sofer, also known as the Chatam Sofer (1762–1839), observed that the Talmud states that the rationale for this part of the ritual was hygienic — i.e., to protect the health of the child. The Chatam Sofer issued a leniency (Heter) that some consider to have been conditional, to perform metzitzah with a sponge to be used instead of oral suction in a letter to his student, Rabbi Lazar Horowitz of Vienna. This letter was never published among Rabbi Sofer’s responsa but rather in the secular journal Kochvei Yitzchok.[77][78] along with letters from Dr. Wertheimer, the chief doctor of the Viennese General Hospital. It relates the story that a mohel (who was suspected of transmitting herpes via metzizah to infants) was checked several times and never found to have signs of the disease and that a ban was requested because of the «possibility of future infections».[79] Moshe Schick (1807–1879), a student of Moses Sofer, states in his book of Responsa, She’eilos u’teshuvos Maharam Schick (Orach Chaim 152,) that Moses Sofer gave the ruling in that specific instance only because the mohel refused to step down and had secular government connections that prevented his removal in favor of another mohel, and the Heter may not be applied elsewhere. He also states (Yoreh Deah 244) that the practice is possibly a Sinaitic tradition, i.e., Halacha l’Moshe m’Sinai. Other sources contradict this claim, with copies of Moses Sofer’s responsa making no mention of the legal case or of his ruling applying in only one situation. Rather, that responsa makes quite clear that «metzizah» was a health measure and should never be employed where there is a health risk to the infant.[80]

Chaim Hezekiah Medini, after corresponding with the greatest Jewish sages of the generation, concluded the practice to be Halacha l’Moshe m’Sinai and elaborates on what prompted Moses Sofer to give the above ruling.[81] He tells the story that a student of Moses Sofer, Lazar Horowitz, Chief Rabbi of Vienna at the time and author of the responsa Yad Elazer, needed the ruling because of a governmental attempt to ban circumcision completely if it included metztitzah b’peh. He therefore asked Sofer to give him permission to do brit milah without metzitzah b’peh. When he presented the defense in secular court, his testimony was erroneously recorded to mean that Sofer stated it as a general ruling.[82] The Rabbinical Council of America (RCA), which claims to be the largest American organization of Orthodox rabbis, published an article by mohel Dr Yehudi Pesach Shields in its summer 1972 issue of Tradition magazine, calling for the abandonment of Metzitzah b’peh.[83] Since then the RCA has issued an opinion that advocates methods that do not involve contact between the mohel’s mouth and the infant’s genitals, such as the use of a sterile syringe, thereby eliminating the risk of infection.[67] According to the Chief Rabbinate of Israel[84] and the Edah HaChareidis[85] metzitzah b’peh should still be performed.

The practice of metzitzah b’peh posed a serious risk in the transfer of herpes from mohelim to eight Israeli infants, one of whom suffered brain damage.[69][86] When three New York City infants contracted herpes after metzizah b’peh by one mohel and one of them died, New York authorities took out a restraining order against the mohel requiring use of a sterile glass tube, or pipette.[57][87] The mohel’s attorney argued that the New York Department of Health had not supplied conclusive medical evidence linking his client with the disease.[87][88] In September 2005, the city withdrew the restraining order and turned the matter over to a rabbinical court.[89] Dr. Thomas Frieden, the Health Commissioner of New York City, wrote, «There exists no reasonable doubt that ‘metzitzah b’peh’ can and has caused neonatal herpes infection….The Health Department recommends that infants being circumcised not undergo metzitzah b’peh.»[90] In May 2006, the Department of Health for New York State issued a protocol for the performance of metzitzah b’peh.[91] Dr. Antonia C. Novello, Commissioner of Health for New York State, together with a board of rabbis and doctors, worked, she said, to «allow the practice of metzizah b’peh to continue while still meeting the Department of Health’s responsibility to protect the public health.»[92] Later in New York City in 2012 a 2-week-old baby died of herpes because of metzitzah b’peh.[93]

In three medical papers done in Israel, Canada, and the US, oral suction following circumcision was suggested as a cause in 11 cases of neonatal herpes.[69][94][95] Researchers noted that prior to 1997, neonatal herpes reports in Israel were rare, and that the late incidences[spelling?] were correlated with the mothers carrying the virus themselves.[69] Rabbi Doctor Mordechai Halperin implicates the «better hygiene and living conditions that prevail among the younger generation,» which lowered to 60% the rate of young Israeli Chareidi mothers who carry the virus. He explains that an «absence of antibodies in the mothers’ blood means that their newborn sons received no such antibodies through the placenta, and therefore are vulnerable to infection by HSV-1.»[96]

Barriers[edit]

Because of the risk of infection, some rabbinical authorities have ruled that the traditional practice of direct contact should be replaced by using a sterile tube between the wound and the mohel’s mouth, so there is no direct oral contact. The Rabbinical Council of America, the largest group of Modern Orthodox rabbis, endorses this method.[97] The RCA paper states: «Rabbi Schachter even reports that Rav Yosef Dov Soloveitchik reports that his father, Rav Moshe Soloveitchik, would not permit a mohel to perform metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact, and that his grandfather, Rav Chaim Soloveitchik, instructed mohelim in Brisk not to do metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact. However, although Rav Yosef Dov Soloveitchik also generally prohibited metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact, he did not ban it by those who insisted upon it.» The sefer Mitzvas Hametzitzah[98] by Rabbi Sinai Schiffer of Baden, Germany, states that he is in possession of letters from 36 major Russian (Lithuanian) rabbis that categorically prohibit Metzitzah with a sponge and require it to be done orally. Among them is Rabbi Chaim Halevi Soloveitchik of Brisk.

In September 2012, the New York Department of Health unanimously ruled that the practice of metztizah b’peh should require informed consent from the parent or guardian of the child undergoing the ritual.[99] Prior to the ruling, several hundred rabbis, including Rabbi David Neiderman, the executive director of the United Jewish Organization of Williamsburg, signed a declaration stating that they would not inform parents of the potential dangers that came with metzitzah b’peh, even if informed consent became law.[100]

In a motion for preliminary injunction with intent to sue, filed against New York City Department of Health & Mental Hygiene, affidavits by Awi Federgruen,[101][102] Brenda Breuer,[103][104] and Daniel S. Berman[105][106] argued that the study on which the department passed its conclusions is flawed.[107][108][109][110]

The «informed consent» regulation was challenged in court. In January 2013 the U.S. District court ruled that the law did not specifically target religion and therefore must not pass strict scrutiny. The ruling was appealed to the Court of Appeals.[111]

On August 15, 2014, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the decision by the lower court, and ruled that the regulation does have to be reviewed under strict scrutiny to determine whether it infringes on Orthodox Jews’ freedom of religion.[112]

On September 9, 2015, after coming to an agreement with the community The New York City Board of Health voted to repeal the informed consent regulation.[113]

Hatafat dam brit[edit]

A brit milah is more than circumcision; it is a sacred ritual in Judaism, as distinguished from its non-ritual requirement in Islam. One ramification is that the brit is not considered complete unless a drop of blood is actually drawn. The standard medical methods of circumcision through constriction do not meet the requirements of the halakhah for brit milah, because they are done with hemostasis, i.e., they stop the flow of blood. Moreover, circumcision alone, in the absence of the brit milah ceremony, does not fulfill the requirements of the mitzvah. Therefore, in cases involving a Jew who was circumcised outside of a brit milah, an already-circumcised convert, or an aposthetic (born without a foreskin) individual, the mohel draws a symbolic drop of blood (Hebrew: הטפת דם, hatafat-dam) from the penis at the point where the foreskin would have been or was attached.[114]

Milah L’shem Giur[edit]

Set of brit milah implements, Göttingen city museum

A milah l’shem giur is a «circumcision for the purpose of conversion». In Orthodox Judaism, this procedure is usually done by adoptive parents for adopted boys who are being converted as part of the adoption or by families with young children converting together. It is also required for adult converts who were not previously circumcised, e.g., those born in countries where circumcision at birth is not common. The conversion of a minor is valid in both Orthodox and Conservative Judaism until a child reaches the age of majority (13 for a boy, 12 for a girl); at that time the child has the option of renouncing his conversion and Judaism, and the conversion will then be considered retroactively invalid. He must be informed of his right to renounce his conversion if he wishes. If he does not make such a statement, it is accepted that the boy is halakhically Jewish. Orthodox rabbis will generally not convert a non-Jewish child raised by a mother who has not converted to Judaism.[115]

The laws of conversion and conversion-related circumcision in Orthodox Judaism have numerous complications, and authorities recommend that a rabbi be consulted well in advance.

In Conservative Judaism, the milah l’shem giur procedure is also performed for a boy whose mother has not converted, but with the intention that the child be raised Jewish. This conversion of a child to Judaism without the conversion of the mother is allowed by Conservative interpretations of halakha. Conservative Rabbis will authorize it only under the condition that the child be raised as a Jew in a single-faith household. Should the mother convert, and if the boy has not yet reached his third birthday, the child may be immersed in the mikveh with the mother, after the mother has already immersed, to become Jewish. If the mother does not convert, the child may be immersed in a mikveh, or body of natural waters, to complete the child’s conversion to Judaism. This can be done before the child is even one year old. If the child did not immerse in the mikveh, or the boy was too old, then the child may choose of their own accord to become Jewish at age 13 as a Bar Mitzvah, and complete the conversion then.[116]

  • The ceremony, when performed l’shem giur, does not have to be performed on a particular day, and does not override Shabbat and Jewish Holidays.[117][118]
  • In Orthodox Judaism, there is a split of authorities on whether the child receives a Hebrew name at the Brit ceremony or upon immersion in the Mikvah. According to Zichron Brit LeRishonim, naming occurs at the Brit with a different formula than the standard Brit Milah. The more common practice among Ashkenazic Jews follows Rabbi Moshe Feinstein, with naming occurring at immersion.

Where the procedure was performed but not followed by immersion or other requirements of the conversion procedure (e.g., in Conservative Judaism, where the mother has not converted), if the boy chooses to complete the conversion at Bar Mitzvah, a milah l’shem giur performed when the boy was an infant removes the obligation to undergo either a full brit milah or hatafat dam brit.

Controlling male sexuality[edit]

The desire to control male sexuality has been central to Milah throughout history. Jewish theologians, philosophers, and ethicists have often justified the practice by claiming that the ritual substantially reduces male sexual pleasure and desire.[119][120][121][122][123][124]

The political scientist Thomas Pangle concluded:[119]

As Maimonides — the greatest legal scholar, and also the preeminent medical authority, in traditional Judaism — teaches, the most obvious purpose of circumcision is the weakening of the male sexual capacity and pleasure… Closely related would appear to be the aim of setting before any potential adult male convert the trial of submitting to a mark that incurs shame among most if not all other peoples, as well as being frighteningly painful: «Now a man does not perform this act upon himself or upon a son of his unless it be in consequence of a genuine belief… Finally, this mark, and the gulf it establishes, not only distinguishes but unifies the chosen people. The peculiar nature of the pain, of the debility, and of the shame serves to underline the fact that dedication to God calls for a severe mastery over and ruthless subordination of sexual appetite and pleasure. It is surely no accident, Maimonides observes in the same passage just quoted, it was the chaste Abraham who was the first to be called upon to enact ritual circumcision. But of course we must add since the commandment applies to Ishmael as well as to Issac, circumcision is the mark uniting those singular peoples, descended from Abraham, who recall not only his chastity but above all his dread in the presence of God; who share in that dread, and who understand the dread and the circumcision to be in part their response as mortal, hence reproductive, hence sexual creatures — created in the image of God — to the presence of the holy or pure God Who as Creator utterly transcends His mortal, reproductive creatures, and especially their sexuality.

The Jewish philosopher Philo Judaeus argued that Milah is a way to «mutilate the organ» in order to eliminate «all superfluous and excessive pleasure.»[120][121][125]

Similarly, while not claiming that circumcision limited sexual pleasure, Maimonides proposed that two important purposes of circumcision are to temper sexual desire and to join in an affirmation of faith and the covenant of Abraham:[126][127]

Visible symbol of a covenant[edit]

Rabbi Saadia Gaon considers something to be «complete» if it lacks nothing, but also has nothing that is unneeded. He regards the foreskin an unneeded organ that God created in man, and so by amputating it, the man is completed.[128] The author of Sefer ha-Chinuch[129] provides three reasons for the practice of circumcision:

  1. To complete the form of man, by removing what he claims to be a redundant organ;
  2. To mark the chosen people, so that their bodies will be different as their souls are. The organ chosen for the mark is the one responsible for the sustenance of the species.
  3. The completion effected by circumcision is not congenital, but left to the man. This implies that as he completes the form of his body, so can he complete the form of his soul.

Talmud professor Daniel Boyarin offered two explanations for circumcision. One is that it is a literal inscription on the Jewish body of the name of God in the form of the letter «yud» (from «yesod»). The second is that the act of bleeding represents a feminization of Jewish men, significant in the sense that the covenant represents a marriage between Jews and (a symbolically male) God.[130]

Other reasons[edit]

In Of the Special Laws, Book 1, the Jewish philosopher Philo additionally gave other reasons for the practice of circumcision.[125]

He attributes four of the reasons to «men of divine spirit and wisdom.» These include the idea that circumcision:

  1. Protects against disease,
  2. Secures cleanliness «in a way that is suited to the people consecrated to God,»
  3. Causes the circumcised portion of the penis to resemble a heart, thereby representing a physical connection between the «breath contained within the heart [that] is generative of thoughts, and the generative organ itself [that] is productive of living beings,» and
  4. Promotes prolificness by removing impediments to the flow of semen.
  5. «Is a symbol of a man’s knowing himself.»

Judaism, Christianity, and the Early Church (4 BCE – 150 CE)[edit]

The 1st-century Jewish author Philo Judaeus defended Jewish circumcision on several grounds. He thought that circumcision should be done as early as possible as it would not be as likely to be done by someone’s own free will. He claimed that the foreskin prevented semen from reaching the vagina and so should be done as a way to increase the nation’s population. He also noted that circumcision should be performed as an effective means to reduce sexual pleasure.[120][121][122][123]

There was also division in Pharisaic Judaism between Hillel the Elder and Shammai on the issue of circumcision of proselytes.[131]

According to the Gospel of Luke, Jesus was circumcised on the 8th day.

After eight days had passed, it was time to circumcise the child; and he was called Jesus, the name given by the angel before he was conceived in the womb.

— Luke 2:21[132]

According to saying 53 of the Gospel of Thomas,[133][134]

His disciples said to him, «is circumcision useful or not?» He said to them, «If it were useful, their father would produce children already circumcised from their mother. Rather, the true circumcision in spirit has become profitable in every respect.»

Foreskin was considered a sign of beauty, civility, and masculinity throughout the Greco-Roman world; it was custom to spend an hour a day or so exercising nude in the gymnasium and in Roman baths; many Jewish men did not want to be seen in public deprived of their foreskins, where matters of business and politics were discussed.[135] To expose one’s glans in public was seen as indecent, vulgar, and a sign of sexual arousal and desire.[15][136][135] Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman culture widely found circumcision to be barbaric, cruel, and utterly repulsive in nature.[15][136][137][138] By the period of the Maccabees, many Jewish men attempted to hide their circumcisions through the process of epispasm due to the circumstances of the period, although Jewish religious writers denounced these practices as abrogating the covenant of Abraham in 1 Maccabees and the Talmud.[15][135] After Christianity and Second Temple Judaism split apart from one another, Milah was declared spiritually unnecessary as a condition of justification by Christian writers such as Paul the Apostle and subsequently in the Council of Jerusalem, while it further increased in importance for Jews.[15]

In the mid-2nd century CE, the Tannaim, the successors of the newly ideologically dominant Pharisees, introduced and made mandatory a secondary step of circumcision known as the Periah.[15][139][1][2] Without it circumcision was newly declared to have no spiritual value.[1] This new form removed as much of the inner mucosa as possible, the frenulum and its corresponding delta from the penis, and prevented the movement of shaft skin, in what creates a «low and tight» circumcision.[15][52] It was intended to make it impossible to restore the foreskin.[15][139][1] This is the form practiced among the large majority of Jews today, and, later, became a basis for the routine neonatal circumcisions performed in the United States.[15][139]

The steps, justifications, and imposition of the practice have dramatically varied throughout history; commonly cited reasons for the practice have included it being a way to control male sexuality by reducing sexual pleasure and desire, as a visual marker of the covenant of the pieces, as a metaphor for mankind perfecting creation, and as a means to promote fertility.[14][2][15][119][120] The original version in Judaic history was either a ritual nick or cut done by a father to the acroposthion, the part of the foreskin that overhangs the glans penis. This form of genital nicking or cutting, known as simply milah, became adopted among Jews by the Second Temple period and was the predominant form until the second century CE.[15][139][1][140] The notion of milah being linked to a biblical covenant is generally believed to have originated in the 6th century BCE as a product of the Babylonian captivity; the practice likely lacked this significance among Jews before the period.[14][15][16][17]

Reform Judaism[edit]

The Reform societies established in Frankfurt and Berlin regarded circumcision as barbaric and wished to abolish it. However, while prominent rabbis such as Abraham Geiger believed the ritual to be barbaric and outdated, they refrained from instituting any change in this matter. In 1843, when a father in Frankfurt refused to circumcise his son, rabbis of all shades in Germany stated it was mandated by Jewish law; even Samuel Holdheim affirmed this.[141] By 1871, Reform rabbinic leadership in Germany reasserted «the supreme importance of circumcision in Judaism,» while affirming the traditional viewpoint that non-circumcised Jews are Jews nonetheless. Although the issue of circumcision of converts continues to be debated, the necessity of Brit Milah for Jewish infant boys has been stressed in every subsequent Reform rabbis manual or guide.[142] Since 1984 Reform Judaism has trained and certified over 300 of their own practicing mohalim in this ritual.[143][144]

Criticism and legality[edit]

Criticism[edit]

Among Jews[edit]

A growing number of contemporary Jews have chosen not to circumcise their sons.[145][146][147][148][149][150]

Among the reasons for their choice is the claim that circumcision is a form of bodily and sexual harm forced on men and violence against helpless infants, a violation of children’s rights, and their opinion that circumcision is a dangerous, unnecessary, painful, traumatic and stressful event for the child, which can cause even further psychophysical complications down the road, including serious disability and even death.[151][152][153][154] They are assisted by a number of Reform, Liberal, and Reconstructionist rabbis, and have developed a welcoming ceremony that they call the Brit shalom («Covenant [of] Peace») for such children,[153][155][149] also accepted by Humanistic Judaism.[156][157] The ceremony of Brit shalom is not officially approved of by the Reform or Reconstructionist rabbinical organizations, who make the recommendation that male infants should be circumcised, though the issue of converts remains controversial[158][159] and circumcision of converts is not mandatory in either movement.[160]

The connection of the Reform movement to an anti-circumcision, pro-symbolic stance is a historical one.[58] From the early days of the movement in Germany and Eastern Europe,[58][161] some classical Reformers hoped to replace ritual circumcision «with a symbolic act, as has been done for other bloody practices, such as the sacrifices».[162] In the US, an official Reform resolution in 1893 announced converts are no longer mandated to undergo the ritual,[163] and this ambivalence toward the practice has carried over to classical-minded Reform Jews today. In Elyse Wechterman’s essay A Plea for Inclusion, she argues that, even in the absence of circumcision, committed Jews should never be turned away, especially by a movement «where no other ritual observance is mandated.» She goes on to advocate an alternate covenant ceremony, brit atifah, for both boys and girls as a welcoming ritual into Judaism.[164] With a continuing negativity towards circumcision still present within a minority of modern-day Reform, Judaic scholar Jon Levenson has warned that if they «continue to judge brit milah to be not only medically unnecessary but also brutalizing and mutilating … the abhorrence of it expressed by some early Reform leaders will return with a vengeance», proclaiming that circumcision will be «the latest front in the battle over the Jewish future in America».[165]

Many European Jewish fathers during the nineteenth century chose not to circumcise their sons, including Theodor Herzl.[166][151] However, unlike many other forms of religious observance, it remained one of the last rituals Jewish communities could enforce. In most of Europe, both the government and the unlearned Jewish masses believed circumcision to be a rite akin to baptism, and the law allowed communities not to register uncircumcised children as Jewish. This legal maneuver spurred several debates addressing the advisibility of its use, since many parents later chose to convert to Christianity. In early 20th-century Russia, Chaim Soloveitchik advised his colleagues to reject this measure, stating that uncircumcised Jewish males are no less Jewish than Jews who violate other commandments.[141] Since the 18th century, multiple Jewish philosophers and theologians have criticized the practice of circumcision, advocating an abolishment of the practice and alternatives such as Brit Shalom.[167][168] Circumcision rates are near-universal among Jews.[12]

Brit shalom (Hebrew: ברית שלום; «Covenant of Peace»), also called alternative brit, brit ben, brit chayim, brit tikkun, or bris in Yiddish and Ashkenazi Hebrew, refers to a range of newly created naming ceremonies for self-identified Jewish families that involve rejecting the traditional Jewish rite of circumcision.[169][170][171][172][173] There is no universally agreed upon form of Brit Shalom. Brit shalom ceremonies are performed by a rabbi or a lay person; in this context, rabbi does not necessarily imply belief in God, as some celebrants belong to Humanistic Judaism.[174] Brit shalom is recognized by secular Jewish organizations affiliated with Humanistic Judaism like the International Institute for Secular Humanistic Judaism, Congress of Secular Jewish Organizations, and Society for Humanistic Judaism.

The actual number of brit shalom ceremonies performed per year is unknown. Filmmaker Eli Ungar-Sargon, who is opposed to circumcision, said in 2011, regarding its current popularity, that «calling it a marginal phenomenon would be generous.»[175] Its popularity in the United States, where it has been promoted by groups such as Beyond the Bris and Jews Against Circumcision,[176][177] is increasing, however.[178][179][180] The first known ceremony was celebrated by Rabbi Sherwin Wine, the founder of the Society for Humanistic Judaism, around 1970.[181]

Outside Jews[edit]

In 2017, Iceland proposed a bill banning circumcision especially for non-medical reasons,[182] with a six-year jail term for anyone carrying out a circumcision[183] for non-medical reasons, as well as anyone guilty of removing a child’s sexual organs in whole or in part, arguing that the practice violates the child’s rights.[182] Religious groups have condemned the bill because it goes against their traditions.[184]

See also[edit]

  • Circumcision of Jesus
  • Khitan (circumcision)
  • History of male circumcision

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f Hirsch, Emil; Kohler, Kaufmann; Jacobs, Joseph; Friedenwald, Aaron; Broydé, Isaac (1906). «Circumcision: The Cutting Away». The Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 13, 2020. In order to prevent the obliteration of the «seal of the covenant» on the flesh, as circumcision was henceforth called, the Rabbis, probably after the war of Bar Kokba (see Yeb. l.c.; Gen. R. xlvi.), instituted the «peri’ah» (the laying bare of the glans), without which circumcision was declared to be of no value (Shab. xxx. 6).
  2. ^ a b c d Gollaher, David (2001). Circumcision: A History Of The World’s Most Controversial Surgery. United States: Basic Books. pp. 1–30. ISBN 978-0-465-02653-1.
  3. ^ a b Tractate Nedarim 32a
  4. ^ Harlow, Daniel; Collins, John (2010). «Circumcision». The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-4674-6609-7.
  5. ^ Hamilton, Victor (1990). The Book of Genesis, Chapters 1-17. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 473. ISBN 978-0-8028-2521-6. In fact, circumcision is only one of two performative commands, the neglect of which bring the kareth penalty. (The other is the failure to be cleansed from corpse contamination, umb. 19:11-22.)
  6. ^ Mark, Elizabeth (2003). «Frojmovic/Travelers to the Circumcision». The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite. Brandeis University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-58465-307-3. Circumcision became the single most important commandment… the one without which… no Jew could attain the world to come.
  7. ^ a b c d Rosner, Fred (2003). Encyclopedia of Jewish Medical Ethics. Feldheim Publishers. p. 196. ISBN 978-1-58330-592-8. Several eras in subsequent Jewish history were associated with forced conversions and with prohibitions against ritual circumcision… Jews endangered their lives during such times and exerted strenuous efforts to nullify such edicts. When they succeeded, they celebrated by declaring a holiday. Throughout most of history, Jews never doubted their obligation to observe circumcision… [those who attempted to reverse it or failed to perform the ritual were called] voiders of the covenant of Abraham our father, and they have no portion in the World to Come.
  8. ^ Oliver, Isaac W. (2013-05-14). «Forming Jewish Identity by Formulating Legislation for Gentiles». Journal of Ancient Judaism. 4 (1): 105–132. doi:10.30965/21967954-00401005. ISSN 1869-3296.
  9. ^ a b Wilson, Robin (2018). The Contested Place of Religion in Family Law. Cambridge University Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-108-41760-0. Jews have a long history of suffering punishment at the hands of government authorities for engaging in circumcision. Muslims have also experienced suppression of their identities through suppression of this religious practice.
  10. ^ a b Livingston, Michael (2021). Dreamworld or Dystopia: The Nordic Model and Its Influence in the 21st Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-108-75726-3. In Jewish history, the banning of circumcision (brit mila) has historically been a first step toward more extreme and violent forms of persecution.
  11. ^ «What Is Hanukkah?». Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center. In the second century BCE, the Holy Land was ruled by the Seleucids (Syrian-Greeks), who tried to force the people of Israel to accept Greek culture and beliefs instead of mitzvah observance and belief in G‑d. Against all odds, a small band of faithful but poorly armed Jews, led by Judah the Maccabee, defeated one of the mightiest armies on earth, drove the Greeks from the land, reclaimed the Holy Temple in Jerusalem and rededicated it to the service of G‑d. … To commemorate and publicize these miracles, the sages instituted the festival of Chanukah.
  12. ^ a b Cohen-Almagor, Raphael (9 November 2020). «Should liberal government regulate male circumcision performed in the name of Jewish tradition?». SN Social Sciences. 1 (1): 8. doi:10.1007/s43545-020-00011-7. ISSN 2662-9283. S2CID 228911544. Protagonists and critics of male circumcision agree on some things and disagree on many others… They also do not underestimate the importance of male circumcision for the relevant communities…. Even the most critical voices of male circumcision do not suggest putting a blanket ban on the practice as they understand that such a ban, very much like the 1920–1933 prohibition laws in the United States, would not be effective… Protagonists and critics of male circumcision debate whether the practice is morally acceptable… They assign different weights to harm as well as to medical risks and to non-medical benefits. The different weights to risks and benefits conform to their underlying views about the practices… Protagonists and critics disagree about the significance of medical reasons for circumcision…
  13. ^ Gollaher, David, 1949- (2000). Circumcision : a history of the world’s most controversial surgery. New York: Basic Books. p. 2. ISBN 0-465-04397-6. OCLC 42040798.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ a b c d Karris, Robert (1992). The Collegeville Bible Commentary: Old Testament. United States: Liturgical Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-8146-2210-0. Circumcision only became an important sign of the covenant during the Babylonian Exile; it is doubtful that it always had this significance for Israel.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Glick, Leonard (2005). Marked in Your Flesh: Circumcision from Ancient Judea to Modern America. United States: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–3, 15–35. ISBN 978-0-19-517674-2.
  16. ^ a b c Eilberg-Schwartz, Howard (1990). The Savage in Judaism: An Anthropology of Israelite Religion and Ancient Judaism. United States: Indiana University Press. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-253-31946-3.
  17. ^ a b c Glick, Nansi S. (2006), «Zipporah and the Bridegroom of Blood: Searching for the Antecedents of Jewish Circumcision», Bodily Integrity and the Politics of Circumcision, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 37–47, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4916-3_3, ISBN 978-1-4020-4915-6, retrieved December 21, 2020
  18. ^ Stavrakopoulou, Francesca (2012). King Manasseh and Child Sacrifice: Biblical Distortions of Historical Realities. Germany: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 198–200, 282–283, 305–306, et al. ISBN 978-3-11-089964-1.
  19. ^ Barker, Margaret (2012). The Mother of the Lord: Volume 1: The Lady in the Temple. T&T Clark. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-567-36246-9. It seems that in the biblical tradition… child sacrifice was replaced by circumcision…
  20. ^ Edinger, Edward (1986). The Bible and the Psyche: Individuation Symbolism in the Old Testament. Inner City Books. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-919123-23-6.
  21. ^ Genesis 17:10–14
  22. ^ Leviticus 12:3
  23. ^ Joshua 5:9.
  24. ^ I Samuel 14:6, 31:4; II Samuel 1:20
  25. ^ Isaiah 52:1
  26. ^ Leviticus 26:41, «their uncircumcised hearts»; compare Jeremiah 9:25; Ezekiel 44:7, 9
  27. ^ Leviticus 19:23
  28. ^ Genesis 17:1–14
  29. ^ Exodus 12:48
  30. ^ Genesis 34:14–16
  31. ^ «Tractate Shabbat: Chapter 19». Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 2022-07-23.
  32. ^ «Circumcision.» Mark Popovsky. Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion. Ed. David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden and Stanton Marlan. New York: Springer, 2010. pp. 153–54.
  33. ^ Talmud Avodah Zarah 26b; Menachot 42a; Maimonides’ Mishneh Torah, Milah, ii. 1; Shulkhan Arukh, Yoreh De’ah, l.c.
  34. ^ Lubrich, Naomi, ed. (2022). Birth Culture. Jewish Testimonies from Rural Switzerland and Environs (in German and English). Basel. pp. 54–123. ISBN 978-3-7965-4607-5.
  35. ^ «Berit Mila Program of Reform Judaism». 2013-10-07. Archived from the original on 2013-10-07. Retrieved 2022-07-23.
  36. ^ «The Circumcision Procedure and Blessings – Performing the Bris Milah – The Handbook to Circumcision». Chabad.org. Archived from the original on 2012-01-16. Retrieved 2012-04-25.
  37. ^ a b  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). «Morbidity». The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
  38. ^ Ilani, Ofri (2008-05-12). «Traditional circumcision raises risk of infection, study shows». Haaretz. Archived from the original on 20 August 2009. Retrieved 15 August 2009.
  39. ^ Kreimer, Susan (2004-10-22). «In New Trend, Adult Emigrés Seek Ritual Circumcision». The Jewish Daily Forward. Retrieved 24 August 2015.
  40. ^ Reiner, Rami (2022). «A baby boy who dies before reaching eight [days] is circumcised with a flint or reed at his grave» (Shulḥan ‘Arukh, Yoreh De’ah 263:5): From Women’s Custom to Rabbinic Law». Journal of the Goldstein-Goren International Center for Jewish Thought. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  41. ^ a b Rabbi Yaakov Montrose. Halachic World – Volume 3: Contemporary Halachic topics based on the Parshah. «Lech Lecha – No Pain, No Bris?» Feldham Publishers 2011, pp. 29–32
  42. ^ Rich, Tracey. «Judaism 101 – Birth and the First month of Life». jewfaq.org. Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
  43. ^ Harris, Patricia (June 11, 1999). «Study confirms that wine drops soothe boys during circumcision». J. The Jewish News of Northern California. Archived from the original on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
  44. ^ «Pain and Circumcision». The New York Times. January 3, 1998. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
  45. ^ Berger, Itai; Steinberg, Avraham (May 2002). «Neonatal mydriasis: intravenous lidocaine adverse reaction». J Child Neurol. 17 (5): 400–01. doi:10.1177/088307380201700520. PMID 12150593. S2CID 2169066.[dead link]
  46. ^ Rezvani, Massoud; Finkelstein, Yaron (2007). «Generalized seizures following topical lidocaine administration during circumcision: establishing causation». Paediatr Drugs. 9 (2): 125–27. doi:10.2165/00148581-200709020-00006. PMID 17407368. S2CID 45481923.
  47. ^ Beider, Alexander (2015). Origins of Yiddish Dialects. Oxford University Press. p. 153.
  48. ^ Øster, Jakob (April 1968). «Further Fate of the Foreskin». 43. Archives of Disease in Childhood: 200–02. Archived from the original on 2010-06-29. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  49. ^ Mishnah Shabbat 19:6. circumcised but did not perform priah, it is as if he did not circumcise.
    The Jerusalem Talmud there adds: «and is punished kareth!»
  50. ^ Circumcision Policy Statement Archived 2009-03-20 at the Wayback Machine of The American Academy of Pediatrics notes that «there are three methods of circumcision that are commonly used in the newborn male,» and that all three include «bluntly freeing the inner preputial epithelium from the epithelium of the glans,» to be later amputated with the foreskin.
  51. ^ Gracely-Kilgore, Katharine A. (May 1984). «Further Fate of the Foreskin». 5 (2). Nurse Practitioner: 4–22. Archived from the original on 2010-06-28. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  52. ^ a b «Styles – Judaism and Islam». Circlist. 2014-03-07. Archived from the original on 2014-05-15. Retrieved 2014-06-11.
  53. ^ Glick, Leonard B. (2005-06-30). Marked in Your Flesh: Circumcision from Ancient Judea to Modern America. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-19-517674-2. the rabbis go on to dedicate all of chapter 19 to circumcision .. milah, peri’ah, and metsitsah. This is the first text specifying peri’ah as an absolute requirement. The same chapter is where we first find mention of the warning that leaving even «shreds» of foreskin renders the procedure «invalid.» (note: section 19.2 from Moed tractate Shabbat (Talmud) is quoted)
  54. ^ Rabbah b. Isaac in the name of Rab. «71b». Talmud Bavli Tractate Yebamoth. The commandment of uncovering the corona at circumcision was not given to Abraham; for it is said, At that time the Lord said unto Joshua: ‘Make thee knives of flint etc.’ But is it not possible [that this applied to] those who were not previously circumcised; for it is written, For all the people that came out were circumcised, but all the people that were born etc.? — If so, why the expression. ‘Again!’ Consequently it must apply to the uncovering of the corona.
  55. ^ Werblowsky, R.J. Zwi; Wigoder, Geoffrey (1997). The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press.
  56. ^ Cohen, Shaye J.D (2005-09-06). Why Aren’t Jewish Women Circumcised?: Gender and Covenant in Judaism. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-520-21250-3. These mishniac requirements have three sources: the Torah, which requires circumcision (milah); the rabbis themselves, who added the requirement of completely uncovering the corona (peri’ah); and ancient medical beliefs about the treatment of wounds (suctioning, bandaging, cumin). The Torah demands circumcision but does not specify exactly what should be cut or how much.
  57. ^ a b c Hartog, Kelly (February 18, 2005). «Death Spotlights Old Circumcision Rite». The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles. Archived from the original on December 13, 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-22. Metzizah b’peh — loosely translated as oral suction — is the part of the circumcision ceremony where the mohel removes the blood from the baby’s member; these days the removal of the blood is usually done using a sterilized glass tube, instead of with the mouth, as the Talmud suggests.
  58. ^ a b c

    In the first half of the nineteenth century, various European governments considered regulating, if not banning, berit milah on the grounds that it posed potential medical dangers. In the 1840s, radical Jewish reformers in Frankfurt asserted that circumcision should no longer be compulsory. This controversy reached Russia in the 1880s. Russian Jewish physicians expressed concern over two central issues: the competence of those carrying out the procedure and the method used for metsitsah. Many Jewish physicians supported the idea of procedural and hygienic reforms in the practice, and they debated the question of physician supervision during the ceremony. Most significantly, many advocated carrying out metsitsah by pipette, not by mouth. In 1889, a committee on circumcision convened by the Russian Society for the Protection of Health, which included leading Jewish figures, recommended educating the Jewish public about the concerns connected with circumcision, in particular, the possible transmission of diseases such as tuberculosis and syphilis through the custom of metsitsah by mouth.
    Veniamin Portugalov, who—alone among Russian Jewish physicians—called for the abolition of circumcision, set off these discussions. Portugalov not only denied all medical claims regarding the sanitary advantages of circumcision but disparaged the practice as barbaric, likening it to pagan ritual mutilation. Ritual circumcision, he claimed, stood as a self-imposed obstacle to the Jews’ attainment of true equality with the other peoples of Europe.

  59. ^ Tractate Shabbos 133b
  60. ^ Rambam – Maimonides in his «book of laws» Laws of Milah Chapter 2, paragraph 2: «…and afterwards he sucks the circumcision until blood comes out from far places, in order not to come to danger, and anyone who does not suck, we remove him from practice.»
  61. ^ Rashi and others on Tractate Shabbos 173a and 173b
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  92. ^ Novello, Antonia C. (May 8, 2006). «Dear Rabbi Letter». Department of Health, New York State. Archived from the original on February 18, 2007. Retrieved 2006-11-23. The meetings have been extremely helpful to me in understanding the importance of metzizah b’peh to the continuity of Jewish ritual practice, how the procedure is performed, and how we might allow the practice of metzizah b’peh to continue while still meeting the Department of Health’s responsibility to protect the public health. I want to reiterate that the welfare of the children of your community is our common goal and that it is not our intent to prohibit metzizah b’peh after circumcision, rather our intent is to suggest measures that would reduce the risk of harm, if there is any, for future circumcisions where metzizah b’peh is the customary procedure and the possibility of an infected mohel may not be ruled out. I know that successful solutions can and will be based on our mutual trust and cooperation.
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  96. ^ Halperin, Mordechai (Winter 2006). Translated by Lavon, Yocheved. «Metzitzah B’peh Controversy: The View from Israel». Jewish Action. 67 (2): 25, 33–39. Archived from the original on March 6, 2012. Retrieved February 15, 2007. The mohel brings the baby’s organ into his mouth immediately after the excision of the foreskin and sucks blood from it vigorously. This action lowers the internal pressure in the tissues of the organ, in the blood vessels of the head of the organ and in the exposed ends of the arterioles that have just been cut. Thus, the difference between the pressure in the blood vessels in the base of the organ and the pressure in the blood vessels at its tip is increased. This requirement has deep religious significance as well as medical benefits….Immediately after incising or injuring an artery, the arterial walls contract and obstruct, or at least reduce, the flow of blood. Since the arterioles of the orlah, or the foreskin, branch off from the dorsal arteries (the arteries of the upper side of the organ), cutting away the foreskin can result in a temporary obstruction in these dorsal arteries. This temporary obstruction, caused by arterial muscle contraction, continues to develop into a more enduring blockage as the stationary blood begins to clot. The tragic result can be severe hypoxia (deprivation of the supply of blood and oxygen) of the glans penis.28 If the arterial obstruction becomes more permanent, gangrene follows; the baby may lose his glans, and it may even become a life-threatening situation. Such cases have been known to occur. Only by immediately clearing the blockage can one prevent such clotting from happening. Performing metzitzah immediately after circumcision lowers the internal pressure within the tissues and blood vessels of the glans, thus raising the pressure gradient between the blood vessels at the base of the organ and the blood vessels at its distal end—the glans as well as the excised arterioles of the foreskin, which branch off of the dorsal arteries. This increase in pressure gradient (by a factor of four to six!) can resolve an acute temporary blockage and restore blood flow to the glans, thus significantly reducing both the danger of immediate, acute hypoxia and the danger of developing a permanent obstruction by means of coagulation. How do we know when a temporary blockage has successfully been averted? When the «blood in the further reaches [i.e., the proximal dorsal artery] is extracted,» as Rambam has stated.
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  136. ^ a b

    Circumcised barbarians, along with any others who revealed the glans penis, were the butt of ribald humor. For Greek art portrays the foreskin, often drawn in meticulous detail, as an emblem of male beauty; and children with congenitally short foreskins were sometimes subjected to a treatment, known as epispasm, that was aimed at elongation.

    — Approaches to Ancient Judaism, New Series: Religious and Theological Studies (1993), p. 149, Scholars Press.

  137. ^ Rubin, Jody P. (July 1980). «Celsus’ Decircumcision Operation: Medical and Historical Implications». Urology. Elsevier. 16 (1): 121–4. doi:10.1016/0090-4295(80)90354-4. PMID 6994325. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
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  140. ^ Baky Fahmy, Mohamed (2020). Normal and Abnormal Prepuce. Springer International Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-3-030-37621-5. …Brit Milah is just [ritually] nicking or amputating the protruding tip of the prepuce…
  141. ^ a b Judith Bleich, «The Circumcision Controversy in Classical Reform in Historical Context», KTAV Publishing House, 2007. pp. 1–28.
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  144. ^ «Berit Mila Program of Reform Judaism». National Association of American Mohalim. 2010. Archived from the original on 2013-10-07. Retrieved 2010-01-23.
  145. ^ Greenberg, Zoe (2017-07-25). «When Jewish Parents Decide Not to Circumcise». The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2017-09-14. Retrieved 2022-07-31.
  146. ^ Chernikoff, Helen (October 3, 2007). «Jewish «intactivists» in U.S. stop circumcising». Reuters. Archived from the original on December 27, 2008. Retrieved 2019-04-03.
  147. ^ Ahituv, Netta (2012-06-14). «Even in Israel, More and More Parents Choose Not to Circumcise Their Sons». Haaretz. Archived from the original on 2022-05-25. Retrieved 2022-07-31.
  148. ^ Kasher, Rani (23 August 2017). «It’s 2017. Time to Talk About Circumcision». Haaretz. Tel Aviv. Archived from the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
  149. ^ a b Oryszczuk, Stephen (28 February 2018). «The Jewish parents cutting out the bris». The Times of Israel. Jerusalem. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
  150. ^ Silvers, Emma (2012-01-06). «Brit shalom is catching on, for parents who dont want to circumcise their child». J. The Jewish News of Northern California. San Francisco Jewish Community Publications Inc. Archived from the original on 2022-07-29. Retrieved 2022-07-30.
  151. ^ a b Goldman, Ronald (1997). «Circumcision: A Source of Jewish Pain». Jewish Circumcision Resource Center. Jewish Spectator. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
  152. ^ Goodman, Jason (January 1999). «Jewish circumcision: an alternative perspective». BJU International. 83 (1: Supplement): 22–27. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1022.x. PMID 10349411. S2CID 29022100. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
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  155. ^ Schonfeld, Victor (2014). «Jewish voices against circumcision getting stronger». Circinfo.org. Retrieved 2018-11-04.
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  164. ^ Mark, Elizabeth Wyner (2003) The Covenant of Circumcision. Lebanon, New Hampshire: Brandeis ISBN 1584653078
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  170. ^ Ghert-Zand, Renee (2011-06-16). «The Jewish Opposition to Circumcision». The Forward. Retrieved 2022-07-30.
  171. ^ Harris, Ben (2021-10-07). «These Jews want to normalize not circumcising — and they want synagogues to help». Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Archived from the original on 2021-10-26. Retrieved 2022-07-30. A new organization launching this week aims to make that more likely. The group, called Bruchim (literally «blessed,» but part of a Hebrew phrase that essentially means «welcome»), is seeking to normalize the decision not to circumcise Jewish boys […] The group is an outgrowth of advocacy that Moss and Bruchim co-founder and executive director, Rebecca Wald, have been doing for decades. Moss first argued against Jewish circumcision in a 1990 essay, and together they outlined an alternative ceremony, brit shalom (literally «covenant of peace») in a 2015 book and distributed flyers at that year’s Reform movement convention outlining ways for synagogues to be more welcoming for families that had opted out of circumcision.
  172. ^ Victor, Jacob (2007-07-18). «Activists Up Efforts To Cut Circumcision Out of Bris Ritual». The Forward. Archived from the original on 2021-09-04. Retrieved 2022-07-30. After conducting his research, Wolfe decided to forgo circumcising his son. Instead, he arranged a so-called brit shalom ceremony, a newly created ritual that celebrates birth while omitting circumcision.
  173. ^ May, Ali (2019-07-17). «Child Protection Laws Are Clear –Except When It Comes To Male Circumcision». HuffPost UK. Retrieved 2022-08-03. Some Jewish parents have opted for an alternative to Bris Milah, called Brit Shalom, in which the boy is welcomed into the community in a ceremony, but he is not circumcised.
  174. ^ «LCSHJ Resolutions». International Institute for Secular Humanistic Judaism. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Society for Humanistic Judaism. 2016-01-22. Retrieved 2022-08-02. We, the Leadership Conference of Secular and Humanistic Jews, mindful of both our commitments to Jewish identity and to gender equality, affirm that:
    • We welcome into the Jewish community all who identify with the history, culture and fate of the Jewish people. Circumcision is not required for Jewish identity.
    • We support parents making informed decisions whether or not to circumcise their sons.
    • We affirm their right to choose, and we accept and respect their choice.
    • Naming and welcoming ceremonies should be egalitarian. We recommend separating circumcision from welcoming ceremonies.
    Approved April 2002
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External links[edit]

Media related to Brit milah at Wikimedia Commons

  • Chabad.org’s Brit Milah: The Covenant of Circumcision
  • Jewish Encyclopedia’s entry for Circumcision
  • Jewish Virtual Library’s Circumcision – Brit Milah
  • CircCentral, an online museum of Brit Milah instruments

Когда в еврейской семье появляется ребенок, он становится следующим звеном цепочки жизней, начатой тысячи лет назад праотцами Авраамом и Сарой. Этот новый человек – еще один кирпичик в создании великой еврейской истории. Но чтобы стать ее частью, необходимо заключить с Всевышним «завет союза», пройдя ритуал обрезания – Брит мила.

Содержание

      1. Зачем евреи обрезают крайнюю плоть?
      2. Когда делают Брит милу мальчикам?
      3. Смысл обрезания
      4. Отличие еврейского обрезания от мусульманского
      5. Процедура обрезания: как проходит церемония Брит мила
      6. Польза обрезания

Зачем евреи обрезают крайнюю плоть?

Брит мила (‏ברית מילה‏‎) – ритуальное удаление крайней плоти у новорожденного мальчика, символ союза между Творцом и еврейским народом.

История обряда обрезания восходит к праотцу Аврааму, совершившему обрезание себе, двум своим сыновьям, и всем мужчинам в его семье, как повелел ему Создатель: «И обрезайте вашу крайнюю плоть, и будет (это) знаком завета между Мною и между вами. И восьмидневным обрезан должен быть у вас всякий мужского пола в поколениях ваших… и будет завет Мой на вашем теле заветом вечным» (Берешит 17:11–134).

Еврею, который игнорировал это предписание, полагался карет — отсечение души от первоисточника: «А необрезанный мужского пола, кто не обрежет крайней плоти своей, – отсечена будет та душа от народа своего; Мой завет он нарушил» (Берешит 17:14).

Согласно преданию, Авраам совершил завет обрезания на десятый день месяца тишрей. В этот день евреи отмечают Иом-Кипур — праздник покаяния и прощения.

Когда делают Брит милу мальчикам?

Согласно Торе, обрезание евреям делают на 8-й день после рождения. «На восьмой день будет обрезана крайняя плоть его» (Ваикра, 12:3). Обрезание –  физический акт, завершающий создание тела. Символ того, что духовное, эмоциональное, моральное и этическое совершенствование невозможно без усилий самого человека.

Каббалисты объясняют время проведения этого религиозного таинства значениями некоторых чисел. В каббале есть три числа, связанных с материальным миром и духовными материями – это 6, 7 и 8.

  • 6 – это материя, число соответствует 6 направлениям: верх, низ, восток, запад, юг, и север.
  • 7 – это духовность, центр, из которого исходят все шесть направлений.
  • 8 – это трансформация материи в духовность: непостижимость реальности, бесконечность и вечность. Животное приносилось в жертву только на 8-й день. Смысл акта жертвоприношения – в перерождении материального в духовное. Символизм проведения обрезания именно на 8-й день состоит в том же.

Важно! Если малыш-еврей не был обрезан на восьмой день, то он обязан пройти эту процедуру будучи взрослым. В этом случае удаление крайней плоти происходит с анестезией, и делает его сертифицированный моэль либо религиозный хирург.

Помимо религиозного 8-й день имеет практическое значение, которое сводится к тому, что новорожденный малыш должен окрепнуть, «пережив Шаббат». Если в первую неделю после рождения у ребенка возникают проблемы со здоровьем, то обряд Брит милы переносят до полного выздоровления.

Интересно! Исследователи отмечают, что у новорожденных существует повышенная предрасположенность к кровотечениям между 2-ми и 5-ми сутками жизни. Это связано прежде всего с тем, что в организме ребенка отсутствует витамин К. Это вещество в количестве, достаточном для процесса свертываемости крови, синтезируется в организме только на 7-ые сутки жизни малыша. Таким образом, первый день, когда можно делать обрезание – это 8-й день. Второе важное условие для свёртываемости крови — это наличие в организме новорожденного особого белка – протромбина. К восьмому дню его количество в организме больше, чем во все другие дни жизни. Таким образом, оптимальный с точки зрения медицины день для церемонии Брит милы – 8-й».

Смысл обрезания

На иврите «брит» означает союз, а термин Брит мила – «знак союза», заключённого между евреями и Создателем. «И скреплю Я союз между Мной и тобой со всеми твоими потомками после тебя во всех поколениях их … Вот Мой союз, который надлежит вам хранить меж Мною и вами и потомством твоим после тебя: пусть обрезанным будет у вас каждый мужчина…» (Берешит 17:7–11). Эта договоренность между сторонами запечатлена на человеческой плоти, и ее задача – возвышение материальной действительности до духовного уровня.

Раби Акива Эйгер объясняет это так: так же, как Орла – крайняя плоть, покрывает собой мужской орган, орлат а-алев – оболочка, препятствующая проникновению духовности, покрывает человеческое сердце. Орлат а-алев не дает высшей мудрости, содержащейся в Торе, войти в сердце человека. Когда моэль устраняет «орла», тогда и сердце еврея, очищаясь от орлат а-алев, открывается для мудрости Торы.

Отличие еврейского обрезания от мусульманского

И евреи, и мусульмане в обязательном порядке практикуют обрезание крайней плоти. На первый взгляд кажется, что два народа совершают одно и то же религиозное таинство. Однако это не так. Различается не только сам обряд, но и смысл, который вкладывается в него представителями этих религий.

  1. Согласно Торе, каждый еврейский мальчик должен быть обрезан на 8-й день после появления на свет. Это день, когда устанавливается союз между появившимся на свет человеком и Творцом. У мусульман не существует строго определенного срока для совершения обряда. Главное, чтобы обрезание было проведено до наступления совершеннолетия – в 12–15 лет. Несмотря на отсутствие четкого предписания относительно того, когда делать обрезание, родители-мусульмане стремятся осуществить эту процедуру на 7-й день от рождения ребенка, потому что так поступил пророк Мухаммад со своими внуками.
  2. У евреев обрезание мальчика осуществляет моэль – специально обученный человек, хорошо разбирающийся в тонкостях обряда. У мусульман обрезание ребенку может сделать любой человек, например, врач.
  3. Если еврейское обрезание проводится строго в утреннее или дневное время, то мусульманское обрезание может быть осуществлено в любое время суток.
  4. Удаление крайней плоти у евреев должно быть полным. Согласно законам Торы, если не соблюдено это правило, то это может значить одно — процедура выполнена неправильно. Мусульмане же не слишком щепетильны в этом вопросе и зачастую удаляют лишь толстую складку.
  5. Если обрезание у евреев – обязательное условие посвящения человека в иудаизм, поскольку он символизирует союз с Творцом, то у мусульман этот обряд относится к обязательному, но он не определяет религиозную принадлежность. Другими словами, быть приверженцем исламской религии может быть даже необрезанный человек.

Процедура обрезания: как проходит церемония Брит мила

Во времена Моше для ритуала Брит милы использовались ножи из кремния.  Впоследствии для обрезания стали использовать металлические инструменты. В средние века церемония обрезания проводилась в синагоге. В ортодоксальных общинах и сейчас существует эта традиция.

Начало ритуала у евреев начинается с приветствия ребенка словами «барух аба!» – «благословен приходящий!». У сефардов в этот момент принято исполнять пиют — благословение всех, соблюдающих завет.

Младенца берут из рук матери и отдают моэлю. Моэль кладет малыша на так называемое кресло Элияу, а затем на подушку на коленях сандака – уважаемого человека, которому оказана честь держать малыша во время церемонии обрезания. Далее следует часть операции, которая называется прия. Головку полового члена покрывают две складки кожи. Одна, более толстая, – «орла», другая, которая находится под ней, значительно тоньше. Она носит название «ор а-Прия». Еврейское обрезание подразумевает полное оголение головки посредством удаления обеих складок кожи. Удалить нижнюю складку (Ор а-Прия) можно двумя способами:

  1. Сначала делается обрезание толстой складки (орла) внешней кожи. Затем при помощи инструмента или ногтя (есть моэли, которые специально отращивают ноготь на пальце именно для этой цели) рассекают внутреннюю кожу (ор а-Прия) и заворачивают ее.
  2. Перед обрезанием при помощи специального инструмента отделяют внутреннюю кожу от органа, а затем, с помощью зажима и скальпеля, одним действием удаляют обе складки сразу.

Следующая стадия обрезания – мецица. Моэль останавливает выступившую кровь при помощи тампона или через трубочку. Заключительная часть операции – перевязка. Отец малыша произносит благословение, сандак вручает ребенка отцу или одному из почетных гостей. После завершения обрезания моэль поднимет бокал с вином и произносит два благословения: первое – на вино, второе – благословение Творцу, установившему этот завет для своего народа. Затем он произносит молитву за здоровье ребенка и еще раз произносит его имя. Далее по традиции, моэль дает малышу несколько капель сладкого вина. Теперь обрезанный мальчик – полноправный член общины евреев. На этом церемония обрезания считается оконченной, можно приступать к праздничной трапезе с песнями и исполнением особых гимнов и принимать поздравления.

Интересно! Вплоть до второй половины XIX в. моэлю приходилось отсасывать кровь ртом. Позднее во многих общинах с разрешения раввината мецица стала производиться при помощи кровоостанавливающих тампонов или иных приспособлений и средств.

Польза обрезания

Обрезание – традиция, которая важна не только с духовных позиций, но и чисто с практических. Апологет иудаизма, мыслитель и богослов Филон Александрийский первым разглядел в обрезании рациональное зерно. Он полагал, что удаление крайней плоти в раннем возрасте предохраняет мужской детородный орган от воспалений и язв.

Это предположение нашло свое подтверждение уже в наши дни. Доктор Гершон Бен-Даниэль, специализирующийся на заболеваниях мочеполовой системы, говорит: «Двадцатилетние наблюдения за пациентами, страдающими теми или иными заболеваниями мочеполовой системы и расстройствами сексуального характера, позволяют с уверенностью говорить о том, что своевременно проведенная операция по удалению крайней плоти позитивно сказывается на половой жизни людей. Проблема многих пар – слишком быстрое семяизвержение. На сегодняшний день фарм-индустрия предлагает целый ряд препаратов, которые способны притупить чувствительность мужчины и, тем самым, увеличить продолжительность полового акта. Однако действуют эти средства недолго и принципиально не решает проблему. Удаление крайней плоти – Брит мила, действует также, как и специальные кремы и мази, но не ограниченное время, а постоянно».

Некоторые считают, что иссечение крайней плоти у ребенка при фимозе и церемония обрезания – это одно и то же. На первый взгляд, действительно, прооперированный орган может выглядеть так же, как обрезанный по всем правилам церемонии. Однако вряд ли операция на хирургическом столе имеет отношение к духовности. В первую очередь Брит мила – это традиция, целью которой является исполнение заповеди обрезания.

Профессор Давид Баренски, глава отделения педиатрии клиники «Шаарей Цедек», утверждает, что инфекции мочевыводящих путей, злокачественные образования мужского полового органа, предрасположенность к заболеваниям, передающимся половым путем, в том числе ВИЧ-инфекции, встречаются чаще у тех, кто не подвергся процедуре обрезания в младенческом возрасте. Кроме того, профессор отмечает, что у женщин, имеющих половые контакты с необрезанными мужчинами, вероятность заражения вирусом папилломы в несколько раз выше.

На плечи еврейского народа выпало множество испытаний. Но даже в самые тяжелые времена, несмотря на риск быть узнанными и уничтоженными, евреи трепетно исполняли завет обрезания, символизирующий несокрушимый союз с Творцом.

Оглавление

Брит мила — заповедь обрезания [↑]

Обрезание, или, на иврите, «брит мила» — обрезание крайней плоти, которое в Иудаизме проводят младенцу мужского пола на восьмой день жизни. Обрезание также известно под названием «союз Авраама», так как заповедь обрезания крайней плоти является знаком союза между Б-гом и евреями, заключенного впервые с праотцом еврейского народа Авраамом. По Торе, Авраам был первым, кто совершил заповедь обрезания по воле Творца. Во время обрезания ему было 99 лет. Также были обрезаны все его домочадцы мужского пола старше восьми дней.

Смысл заповеди обрезания [↑]

Если кто-то спросит, почему еврейский народ исполняет заповеди Торы, то ответ на это будет очень простым — потому что их дал Творец! В принципе, для еврея этого вполне достаточно, чтобы жить по Торе. Однако, каждый человек в меру своих возможностей обязан осмыслить повеления Творца, и это то, чем мы сейчас и займёмся.

Обрезание крайней плоти является одной из «непонятных» заповедей. Даже тот факт, что это полезно с медицинской точки зрения, не делает этот акт более понятным, ведь наши отцы делали обрезание не из-за этого. Да и само название заповеди — «брит», что в переводе на русский означает «союз», говорит о том, что здесь заложено нечто более глубокое…

Наши древние источники частично приоткрывают завесу. Чтобы глубже понять эту заповедь, обратимся к части из них. Так, например, книга «Хинух» упоминает несколько важных аспектов, связанных с обрезанием. Известно, что та часть человеческого тела, которую Тора нас обязывает устранить (на иврите она называется «орла»), в общем-то, является излишней. Никакой полезной функции крайняя плоть не несёт. Так зачем же тогда Всевышний создал нас «недоделанными», да ещё и повелел завершить недоделанную работу? Отвечая на этот вопрос, книга «Хинух» разъясняет смысл обрезания. Как в физическом плане человек создан несовершенным, и в его руках исправить недостатки (а излишество это тоже недостаток), так же и в духовном плане мы сотворены с большим количеством недостатков, которые нужно исправить и тем самым привести себя к совершенству. Так Тора учит нас основной цели нашей жизни — достижению духовной целостности. Необходимо разглядеть свои недостатки и в течение жизни постараться их устранить — такова воля Творца! Это, несомненно, одно из основных положений еврейского мировоззрения, но на этом понимание заповеди обрезания не ограничивается.

Что меняет брит мила? [↑]

Прежде чем подняться ещё на одну ступеньку постижения, приведём ещё несколько примеров из нашей древней истории и увидим, как это действие, освящая человеческое тело, качественно его меняет. Авраам-авину в преклонном возрасте выполняет повеление Творца обрезать крайнюю плоть, и это сильно повышает его пророческий уровень. Если до обрезания Авраам не мог воспринять пророческое видение стоя, то теперь материальность его тела уже не является барьером при соприкосновении с высокими духовными инстанциями. Нечто подобное Тора пишет про необрезанного пророка Билама (Бемидбар 24): «Речь слышащего речи Всесильного, того, кто видит явление Всемогущего, падает с открытыми глазами». Во время принятия пророчества он падал на землю, так как его связь с материальностью мешала нормальному восприятию видения.

Ещё одной иллюстрацией послужит нам история с известным прозелитом по имени Акилас, которую рассказывает мидраш Танхума. Это происходило в эпоху расцвета Римской империи. Акилас был родом из знатной римской семьи и приходился ни больше ни меньше, как племянником императору Андриану. После того, как Акилас принимает иудаизм, он встречает своего дядю, и тот обращает внимание на изменения во внешности племянника:

— Что произошло с тобой?

— Я стал изучать Тору, а также сделал обрезание.

— Что тебя подтолкнуло это сделать?

— Твой совет. В своё время я поделился с тобой своей идеей заняться торговлей, и ты порекомендовал мне скупать дешёвый товар, на который никто не обращает внимание, т.к. по истечении определённого времени его стоимость возрастёт. С тех пор я обошёл все государства и не нашёл более униженного народа, чем евреи. Но в будущем этот народ возвысится, как говорит об этом пророк (Ишаягу 49): «Так сказал Го-сподь, избавитель Израиля, Святой его — презираемому людьми, ненавидимому народами, рабу властелинов цари увидят и встанут, князья поклонятся…».

— Но зачем же делать обрезание?

— Хотел учить Тору.

— Разве невозможно учить Тору, не делая обрезания?

— Отвечу тебе примером — один из твоих полководцев вряд ли получит императорскую награду, если прежде не пожертвует собой ради императора. Тору также нет никакой возможности постигнуть, не исполнив прежде эту заповедь!

В другом диалоге с Андрианом, который также приводит мидраш Танхума, Акилас отвечает на тот же вопрос несколько иначе: «Даже мудрейший из людей в твоём государстве, будь он столетним стариком, не может учить Тору, если не будет обрезан, как сказано в книге Тэилим (147): “Изрекает Он слово Своё Яакову, уставы Свои и законы Свои Израилю. Не сделал Он такого никакому народу, и законов Его не знают они…”». Акилас пытается объяснить римскому императору, что без обрезания понимание еврейского Учения невозможно. Ведь Тора, в отличие от наук, не зависит только от способностей и трудолюбия ученика. Есть Творец Мира, который даёт понимание Торы, и этот подарок далеко не каждый достоин получить.

Другими словами, вполне возможна такая ситуация, что человек будет учить Тору, а истинный смысл от него будет скрыт т.к. необходимые условия для её восприятия не выполнены.

Известный раввин раби Акива Эйгер объясняет это явление следующим образом. Подобно тому, как крайняя плоть, называемая не иврите «орла», покрывает и облекает собой физический орган, есть такого же рода оболочка — «орлат hа-лев», облекающая человеческое сердце. Она делает сердце невосприимчивым к духовности. Между двумя этими оболочками есть связь, и когда моhель (человек, исполняющий эту операцию) устраняет «орла», так и сердце становится открытым для духовности Торы. Недаром в тексте послетрапезной молитвы «биркат hа-Мазон», где мы благодарим Всевышнего за разные блага, которые Он нам даёт, сначала упоминается заповедь обрезания, и лишь затем говорится о Торе. «Благодарим Тебя … за завет Твой, что запечатлел Ты на плоти нашей, и за Тору, которой Ты научил нас…» — порядок именно таков, т.к. без этого завета постижение Торы невозможно.

Обрезание на святом языке — это «брит», что означает «союз». Союз, когда-то заключённый между Творцом и еврейским народом. «И скреплю Я союз между Мной и тобой со всеми твоими потомками после тебя во всех поколениях их — вечный союз: быть Б-гом тебе и всем потомкам твоим после тебя! … Вот Мой союз, который надлежит вам хранить меж Мною и вами и потомством твоим после тебя: пусть обрезанным будет у вас каждый мужчина…» (Брейшит 17:7—11). Что же такое союз? Виленский Гаон в своём комментарии на «Сефер Йецира» говорит, что это не просто договор между двумя сторонами, а нечто большее. Когда одна из сторон передаёт другой что-либо очень важное и дорогое, и тем самым налаживается особая связь между ними — это и называется союзом. То же самое касается завета обрезания — тело при этом приобретает определённую святость — Творец как будто даёт часть Своей сущности и запечатлевает это на плоти нашей, возвышая материальность до уровня духовного. Та самая святость и является знаком завета, связывающим между нами и Творцом.

Даже в тяжёлые для нашего народа времена гонений и преследований эту заповедь трепетно исполняли. Часто это было связано с риском для жизни, а иногда ради обрезания шли на верную смерть. Может быть, сейчас это более понятно…

Обрезание – первая заповедь, которую получил еврейский народ

 Обряд проводится на восьмой день со дня рождения и символизирует собой знак священного союза Всевышнего и еврейского мальчика.

Бар мицва (день, когда ребёнок перешагивает границу, разделяющую детство и взрослую жизнь) рассматривается как второй этап в установлении связи человека и Бога.

До своего 13-го дня рождения мальчик не обязан соблюдать божий закон (мицвот). Хоть он и был связан с Творцом (обрезание крайней плоти открывает сердце ребёнка для любви к божественному), сами заповеди ребёнок не обязан выполнять.

За него эту ответственность несут родители: знакомят с правилами иудейского общества, нормами жизни. Когда же мальчик становится совершеннолетним, всё «бремя» ложится на его плечи. Отныне он сам выбирает путь, размежёвывает плохие и хорошие дела, несёт ответственность за свои поступки.

В этом можно сказать, и состоит связь Бар мицва и обрезания.

Рекомендую к просмотру это видео, все объясняется доступным языком

Для чего евреям дано ОБРЕЗАНИЕ?

Если брит мила (обрезание) не была выполнена на 8-ой день со дня появления ребёнка на свет, процедуру можно произвести и позже. При отсутствии у мальчика отца, обязанность ложится на плечи родственников или друзей семьи.

Даже если мероприятие не было проведено в детстве, не беда – его можно осуществить, когда еврей осознал свою принадлежность, в любое время.

Если же человек не исполнит заповеди, то он собственноручно лишает себя связи с Творцом. По сути, каждый день без обрезания – день нарушения.

какая связь между бар мицвой и обрезанием

Если бар мицва проводится в полные 13 лет мальчика, т.е. когда ему исполнится 13 лет и один день (напоминаем, что еврейские сутки стартуют с вечера), то оптимальное время для брит милы – любые часы от восхода до заката.

 Если мальчик пришёл в этот мир между заходом солнца и появлением на небе звёзд (т.е. в вечернее время, которое определённо нельзя назвать ни днём, ни ночью), процедуру проводят в день, который предположительно будет 9-ым, но не на 8-ой.

бар мицва обрезание

Что же говорится о праздновании бар мицвы и брит милы в первоисточниках?

Святые документы не регламентируют характер торжества. Вообще традиция отмечать совершеннолетие появилась относительно недавно.

Родители, желая, чтобы день запомнился мальчику и семье на всю жизнь, организовывают церемонии и даже прибегают к помощи профессиональных агентств. Не найдём мы и упоминаний о праздновании брит милы в Торе.

Такая практика набирает популярности в современном обществе и связана с гордостью и счастьем за то, что Бог подарил семье сына и позволил его воспитать, вырастить.

Что же на самом деле важнее для еврея – обряд обрезания или становления, взросления? Бар Мицва оставляет неизгладимые впечатления, ведь наложение

Тфилин и Выход к Торе – те события, к которым мальчик начинает готовиться заблаговременно. Быть удостоенным чести читать Тору, следовать божьим заповедям – огромное событие для юноши.

Между тем, о брит миле не принято говорить много. При этом совершенно очевидно, что брит мила важнее, ведь это та заповедь, которую дала Святая Тора.

связь бар мицвы и обрезанием

Какие итоги между бар мицвой и обрезанием

Подводя итог, можно сделать закономерный вывод, что обе традиции важны для каждого еврейского мальчика. Брит мила символизирует установление связи Всевышнего с ребёнком (а не наоборот), когда же мальчик становится бар мицвой, уже он заключает неразрывную связь с Богом, обязуясь следовать его наставлениям и выполняя мицвот.

Гию́р (от иуд.-арам. ‏גִּיּוּר‏‎) — обращение нееврея в иудаизм, а также связанный с этим обряд.

Четвёртая женщина (после Асенефы, Сепфоры и Рахав), прошедшая гиюр — Руфь Моавитянка

ЭтимологияПравить

Гер (м. р. евр. яз. ‏גֵר‏‎ — «пришлец») — слово библейского еврейского языка, встречающееся в Торе[1]. Гиёрет (ж. р. ‏גִיוֹרֶת‏‎ — «прозелитка») — слово из Ми́шны[2].

ИсторияПравить

Первыми примерами обращения неевреев в иудаизм можно считать Иофора — тестя Моисея, и Руфь, а также в Талмуде и более поздних кодексах формализована процедура прозелитизма. Кандидат обязан принять на себя бремя всех 613 заповедей Торы перед судом из трёх судей. Если кандидат — мужчина, ему делают обрезание, после выздоровления — твила в микве завершает процедуру. Женщину только окунают в микве. В древние времена, согласно Торе, кандидат также приносил жертву[3] и раввинский суд окроплял прозелита кровью жертвы. Если кандидат уже обрезан, производят заменяющий ритуал — извлечение капли крови путём укалывания.

  1. Обрезание[4][5].
  2. Окунание[6][7].
  3. Окропление кровью жертвоприношения[8].

ГерыПравить

Гер и гиёрэт — люди, которые не являются этническими евреями или чья мать не является еврейкой, прошедшие иудейский обряд гию́р. Дети обращённой женщины, зачатые до гиюра, но рождённые после, также являются гéрами. Её дети мужского пола, зачатые после гиюра, являются евреями по рождению, девочки являются еврейками по рождению, за исключением права выйти замуж за коэна, в том случае, если их отец — не еврей по рождению. Иудаизм не приветствует обращение только ради брака. Сомнительный гиюр может быть признан недействительным даже спустя длительное время, что, согласно иудаизму, негативно сказывается на судьбе детей, рождённых в таком браке[9].

ПримечанияПравить

  1. «Если же поселится у тебя пришлец (גר) и захочет совершить Пасху Господу, то обрежь у него всех мужского пола, и тогда пусть он приступит к совершению её и будет как природный житель (אזרח) земли; а никакой необрезанный не должен есть её» (Исх. 12:48)
  2. Мишна, Ктубóт 4.3
  3. «И взял книгу завета и прочитал вслух народу, и сказали они: всё, что сказал Господь, сделаем и будем послушны (נעשה ונשמע). И взял Моисей крови и окропил народ, говоря: вот кровь завета, который Господь заключил с вами о всех словах сих» (Исх. 24:7, 8)
  4. «Если же поселится у тебя пришелец и захочет совершить Пасху Господу, то обрежь у него всех мужеского пола, и тогда пусть он приступит к совершению её и будет как природный житель земли; а никакой необрезанный не должен есть её» (Исх. 12:48)
  5. BAPTISM Архивная копия от 6 сентября 2021 на Wayback Machine «The washing of their clothes was an important means of sanctification enjoined on the Israelites before the Revelation on Mt. Sinai (Ex. xix. 10). The Rabbis connect with this the duty of bathing by complete immersion (ṭebilah, Yeb. 46b; Mek., Baḥodesh, iii.); and since sprinkling with blood was always accompanied by immersion, tradition connects with this immersion the blood lustration mentioned as having also taken place immediately before the Revelation (Ex. xxiv. 8), these three acts being the initiatory rites always performed upon proselytes, „to bring them under the wings of the Shekinah“ (Yeb. l.c.)». Очищение одежды (Исх. 19:10) — важный способ освящения евреев до откровения на горе Синай. Раввины сравнивают это выражение с обязанностью полного погружения в воду (твила), а поскольку окропление кровью жертвоприношения было всегда совмещено с погружением в воду, то иудейская традиция и связывает это вместе. Обрезание, окунание, окропление были тремя частями обряда посвящения в иудейскую религию
  6. «И сказал Господь Моисею: пойди к народу, [объяви] и освяти его сегодня и завтра; пусть вымоют одежды свои» (Исх. 19:10)
  7. BAPTISM Архивная копия от 6 сентября 2021 на Wayback Machine «According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; ‘Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a „seal“ (Schlatter, „Die Kirche Jerusalems“, 1898, p. 70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life». Согласно учению раввинов, которое было уважаемым уже во время существования Храма, твила (окунание в воду), наряду с обрезанием и жертвоприношением от прозелита, были крайне необходимы для обращения людей, этнически не принадлежащих еврейской нации в иудейскую религию. Обрезание было намного важнее и так же, как и твила (погружение в воду) называли печатью. Однако, поскольку обрезание было отброшено христианством, а жертвоприношения были прекращены, то твила (погружение в воду) осталось основным условием для посвящения в религиозное служение
  8. «И взял Моисей крови и окропил народ, говоря: вот кровь завета, который Господь заключил с вами о всех словах сих» (Исх. 24:8)
  9. Гиюр — принятие еврейства. Дата обращения: 2 марта 2021. Архивировано 27 января 2021 года.

СсылкиПравить

  • Гиюр — принятие еврейства
  • Гиюр — основы иудаизма
  • Гиюр: что об этом думают раввины?
  • Гиюр — в прошлом и ближайшем будущем
  • 50 вопросов экзамена по гиюру

ОБРЕЗАНИЕ 

  • Об обрезании

О заповеди обрезания
Смысл заповеди обрезания
Кому делают обрезание и на ком лежит обязанность организовать обрезание
Время исполнения заповеди об обрезании
Кто имеет право делать обрезание

  • Как делается обрезание

Трапеза в честь обрезания
Порядок обрезания младенцев
Сандак
Благословения ребенку
Как поступают с крайней плотью после обрезания

  • Как сделать обрезание в Петербурге

Обрезание в Первой семейной клинике Петербурга
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Об обрезании

О заповеди обрезания

Первой заповедью, которую получил первый еврей — наш праотец Авраам — была заповедь обрезания; она же была первой заповедью, полученной еврейским народом. Обрезание — знак священного союза на теле еврея; выполнив эту заповедь, человек вступает в союз со Всевышним, Б-гом Израиля.

Всякий обрезанный мужчина-еврей постоянно (и днем и ночью) исполняет заповедь; как сказано: «Если бы не исполнялся Мой союз ночью и днем, Я бы не поставил закон для неба и земли» (Ирмеяу, 33:25), т.е. благодаря исполнению этой заповеди мир продолжает существовать. Говорят наши мудрецы, что наш праотец Авраам сидит у входа в ад и спасает от него всех обрезанных.

Смысл заповеди обрезания

Тело — оболочка души. В каждую части тела облекается соответствующая ей часть души. Человек влияет на свою душу через органы своего тела.
Словом «орла» (которое на русский язык традиционно, но не очень удачно переводят словами «крайняя плоть») обозначается оболочка, которая закрывает, препятствует, мешает. (Например, пророк говорит: «Заткнули свои уши», используя слово «орла»). Крайней плоти, которая покрывает орган, ответственный за продолжение жизни, соответствует аналогичная оболочка в духовной сфере, не позволяющая Б-жественной душе действовать в соответствии с волей Вс-вышнего. Эта оболочка называется «орлат а-лев» — «необрезанность сердца».
Обрезая ненужную, в сущности, крайнюю плоть, человек тем самым устраняет «необрезанность сердца». И тогда сердце отрывается от любви к только материальным вещам и открывается для любви к Б-жественному, исполняясь желания соединиться с Творцом.

Кому делают обрезание и на ком лежит обязанность организовать обрезание

Тора повелевает каждому еврею сделать обрезание своему сыну, рожденному матерью-еврейкой. Это — самая важная из предписывающих заповедей Торы.
Если у мальчика нет отца, обязанность обрезать ребенка лежит на его родственниках и друзьях семьи.
Тот, кого не обрезали в детстве, обязан позаботиться о собственном обрезании, когда вырастет. Если он не исполнит этой заповеди, его душа будет изъята из народа, как сказано: «Душа необрезанного мужчины, который не обрежет свою крайнюю плоть, да будет истреблена из своего народа, ибо он нарушил Мой союз» (Брейшит, 17:14). Иными словами, этот человек сам себя лишает связи и с Б-гом Израиля, и с народом Израиля. Каждый день, прожитый до обрезания, является для него новым днем нарушения. Поэтому делать обрезание надо немедленно, как только представится такая возможность.

Время исполнения заповеди об обрезании

Время обрезания — восьмой день жизни ребенка. Именно на восьмой день после рождения сына надо сделать ему обрезание, но не раньше. Если по какой-либо причине обрезание не сделано вовремя, его делают сразу же, как только представится возможность.

Если по ошибке ребенка обрезали раньше восьмого дня, заповедь не засчитывается. Эту ошибку следует исправить, для этого легким уколом выдавливают капельку крови у младенца на месте обрезания.

Время исполнения заповеди обрезания — дневная часть суток, от восхода солнца до его заката, но ни в коем случае не ночь. Принято совершать обряд утром, чтобы как можно раньше ввести мальчика в союз народа Израиля. Если по ошибке обрезание сделано ночью, после выхода звезд и до наступления зари, то, как только наступит день, необходимо выпустить капельку крови во имя исполнения заповеди обрезания.

Если восьмой день с рождения ребенка приходится на субботу, обрезание все равно делается. И это при том, что вообще-то операции на теле человека в субботу категорически запрещены. Однако обрезание, которое делается не на восьмой день жизни ребенка, запрещено делать в субботу и в праздники — дни, когда нельзя совершать работу.

Если младенец болен или у него желтуха не в самой легкой форме, то обрезание откладывают до выздоровления ребенка, чтобы не нанести вред его здоровью. По таким вопросам всегда следует консультироваться с опытным моэлем или врачом. Во всех случаях болезни нужно отложить обрезание на семь дней после выздоровления ребенка.

Если мальчик родился между заходом солнца и появлением на небе звезд (т.е. в час, о котором нельзя с уверенностью сказать, ночь это или день), обрезание делают в тот день, который предположительно будет девятым (если считать, что мальчик родился днем, а не ночью), но не на восьмой. В субботу подобное обрезание делать нельзя.

ОбрезаниеКто имеет право делать обрезание

Человек, делающий обрезание, называется моэль. Моэлем может быть только еврей. Если нет еврея-мужчины, обрезание может сделать женщина (хотя это и не принято), но нееврей моэлем в любом случае быть не может, и потому, если обрезание сделано неевреем, его нужно сделать вторично — выпустить капельку крови на месте обрезания.

В современной практике еврейской жизни моэль — это, как правило, человек с медицинским образованием.

Нужно постараться найти самого хорошего и самого праведного моэля, чтобы он сделал обрезание с правильными и чистыми мыслями, что, в свою очередь, поможет младенцу в чистоте вступить в союз с Б-гом.


Как делается обрезание

Процедура обрезания включает в себя два действия. Во-первых, отрезается лепесток кожицы, который покрывает головку полового члена. Затем осуществляется приа (дословно «обнажение»): разрывают внутренний лепесток (тонкую оболочку) и отгибают его к месту разреза, чтобы головка была полностью открыта.

После завершения обрезания (если обрезают младенца) моэль должен полностью обескровить ранку. Затем ранка обрабатывается медикаментами, необходимыми для заживления и дезинфекции, и накладывается повязка.

Ребенку, родившемуся без крайней плоти, на месте обрезания выпускают немного крови. Это должен делать специалист. Благословений при этом не произносят.

Младенец при обрезании практически не чувствует боли, поскольку у него еще не до конца развиты нервные окончания. Поэтому обезболивание ему не делается.

Детям более старшего возраста и взрослым обрезание делают с местным обезболиванием. В плане обряда такое обрезание ничем не отличается от обрезания младенца.

Сразу же после того, как сделано обрезание, произносятся соответствующие благословения.

Текст благословений, которые произносятся после обрезания

БАРУХ АТА АДО-НАЙ ЭЛО-ЭЙНУ МЕЛЕХ АОЛАМ БОРЭ ПРИ АГАФЕН

«Благословен Ты, Г-сподь, наш Б-г, Царь вселенной, создающий плод лозы».

БАРУХ АТА АДО-НАЙ ЭЛО-ЭЙНУ МЕЛЕХ АОЛАМ, АШЕР КИДАШ ЙЕДИД МИБЕТЕН ВЕХОК БИШЕЭРО САМ, ВЕЦЕЭЦААВ ХАТАМ БЕОТ БРИТ КОДЕШ. АЛЬ НЕН БИСХАР ЗОТ, Э-ЛЬ ХАЙ ХЕЛЬКЕЙНУ ЦУРГЙНУ, ЦАВЭ ЛЕАЦИЛЬ ЙЕДИДУТ ШЕЭРЕЙНУ МИШАХАТ, ЛЕМААН БРИТО АШЕР САМ БИВСАРЕЙНУ. БАРУХ АТА АДО-НАЙ КОРЕТ АБРИТ

«Благословен Ты, Г-сподь, наш Б-г, Царь вселенной, Который освятил любимца при рождении, закон запечатлев на его плоти, а его потомков отметив знаком святого союза. И потому, в награду за это, Б-г живой, наша Доля, наша Твердыня, повелел спасать наши души, что в наших телах, от уничтожения, ради союза с Ним, который запечатлен Им на нашем теле. Благословен Ты, Г-сподь, заключающий союз».

ЭЛО-ЭЙНУ ВЕЛО-ЭЙ АВОТЕЙНУ КАЕМ ЭТ АЕЛЕДАЗЭ ЛЕАВИВ УЛЕИМО, ВЕЙИКАРЭ ШМО БЕИСРАЭЛЬ (…) БЕН (…). ЙИСМАХ ААВ БЕЙОЦЭ ХАЛАЦАВ ВЕТАГЕЛЬ ИМО БИФРИ БИТНА, КАКАТУВ ЙИСМАХ АВИХА ВЕИМЕХА ВЕТАГЕЛЬ ЙОЛАДЕТЕХА. ВЕНЕЭМАР ВАЭЭВОР АЛАЙИХ ВАЭРЕХ МИТБОСЕСЕТ БЕДАМАЙИХ ВАОМАР ЛАХ БЕДАМАЙИХ ХАЙИ. ВАОМАР ЛАХ БЕДАМАЙИХ ХАЙИ. ВЕНЭЭМАР ЗАХАР ЛЕОЛАМ БРИТО, ДАВАР ЦИВА ЛЕЭЛЕФ ДОР АШЕР КАРАТ ЭТ АВРААМ УШВУАТО ЛЕЙИСХАК ВАЯАМИДЕА ЛЕЯАКОВ ЛЕХОК, ЛЕЙИСРАЭЛЬ БРИТ ОЛАМ. ВЕНЭЭМАР ВАЯМОЛЬ АВРААМ ЭТ ЙИЦХАК БНО БЕН ШМОНАТ ЯМИМ, КААШЕР ЦИВА ОТО ЭЛО-ИМ. ОДУ ЛААДО-НАЙ КИ ТОВ, КИ ЛЕОЛАМ ХАДСО. ОДУ ЛААДО-НАЙ КИ ТОВ, КИ ЛЕОЛАМ ХАДСО.(…) БЕН (…) ЗЭ АКАТАН ГАДОЛЬ ЙИЕ. КЕШЕМ ШЕНИХНАС ЛАБРИТ, КЕН ЙИКАНЕС ЛЕТОРА УЛЕХУПА УЛЕМААСИМ ТОВИМ

«Б-г наш и наших отцов! Сохрани этого ребенка для его отца и матери. И будет наречено ему имя в Израиле — … (имя ребенка), сын … (имя отца). Пусть будет рад отец своему потомству и мать плоду своего чрева; как написано: «Пусть радуются твои отец и мать, веселится родившая тебя». И еще сказано: «Проходил Я мимо тебя и увидел, как ты лежишь в своей крови, и сказал тебе: «Ценой своей крови живи», и еще раз: «Ценой своей крови живи». Также сказано: «Навек запомнил Свой союз, то, что заповедано на тысячу поколений, (союз), который заключил с Авраамом, и клятву, данную Ицхаку, и постановил законом для Яакова, Израилю союзом вечным». Еще сказано: «И обрезал Авраам своего сына Ицхака на восьмой день, как повелел ему Б-г». Славьте Г-спода, ибо Он щедр, ибо Его милосердие вечно! Славьте Г-спода, ибо Он щедр, ибо Его милосердие вечно!… (имя ребенка), сын … (имя отца), — этот младенец вырастет большим и, так же как приобщился он к союзу — пусть придет он к Торе, и к хупе, и к добрым делам!

Трапеза в честь обрезания

После обрезания устраивают трапезу. Эта трапеза предписана по закону, участвовать в ней — большая заповедь. Участие в трапезе в честь обрезания способствует искуплению грехов.

ОбрезаниеПорядок обрезания младенцев

По обычаю в помещение, где будет проводиться обрезание, ребенка вносит подруга матери младенца и там передает его своему мужу. Эта супружеская пара называется кватеры. Удостоиться быть кватерами — большой почет. Многие родители предоставляют честь быть кватерами на обрезании их сына бездетным супругам, чтобы эта миссия была засчитана им в заслугу и они удостоились родить ребенка.
Все присутствующие встают, чтобы почтить младенца, который через несколько минут присоединится к общине завета, и произносят:
Барух а-ба («Благословен входящий»)

С начала и до окончания обряда обрезания все присутствующие из уважения к великой заповеди должны стоять, потому что в эти секунды еще одна душа присоединяется к Израилю, заключая союз со Всевышним, и Сам Всевышний как бы пребывает здесь.

Нужно постараться, чтобы во время обряда обрезания присутствовали десять взрослых мужчин — полная община. Сказано: «Б-г присутствует в Божьей общине», то есть ребенок, присоединяясь к общине Израиля, одновременно соединяется с Б-гом, Который всегда находится в полной общине. Прийти на обрезание — великое дело: ведь благодаря этому можно удостоиться очень многого; обряд исполнения заповеди — самое подходящее время для молитвы при любой беде.

Отец берет ребенка на руки и громко читает отрывки, приведенные ниже. Собравшиеся повторяют слова каждого из стихов вслед за отцом:

ШМА ИСРАЭЛЬ, АДО-НАЙ ЭЛО-ЭЙНУ, АДО-НАЙ ЭХАД
«Слушай, Израиль: Г-сподь — наш Б-г, единственный Г-сподь».

АДО-НАЙ МЕЛЕХ, АДО-НАЙ МАЛАХ, АДО-НАЙ ЙИМЛОХ ЛЕОЛАМ ВАЭД 
«Г-сподь — Царь, Г-сподь воцарился, Г-сподь будет Царем навеки».

AHA АДО-НАЙ ОШИА НА
«Пожалуйста, Г-сподь, даруй спасение!»

AHA АДО-НАЙ АЦЛИХА НА
«Пожалуйста, Г-сподь, даруй удачу!»

Престол Элиягу

Мальчика кладут на специальное кресло, которое называется «престол пророка Элияу». Названо оно так в честь пророка Элияу, который, как считается, присутствует на каждом обрезании. Затем произносят текст: «Вот престол пророка Элияу…»
Обычай читать этот текст очень древний и распостранен во всех еврейских общинах. Корни его уходят глубоко в историю. Царь Израильского царства Ахав (VIII в. до н.э.) начал служить чужим божествам, запретив евреям обрезать своих сыновей. Пророк Элияу наложил проклятие, и три года, до тех пор, пока народ не раскаялся, не шли дожди; как сказано: «Возревновал я за Г-спода, ибо оставили Твой союз сыны Израиля» (Млахим I, 19:14). Три года ни одна капля дождя не упала на землю Страны Израиля, в результате чего наступил страшный голод. Наконец евреи раскаялись и прекратили поклоняться идолам. Только тогда «…пошел сильный дождь». Так благодаря пророку Элияу народ Израиля стал вновь верен союзу со Всевышним.
Пророк Элияу рисковал своей жизнью, поскольку царь Ахав, разгневавшись на пророка, хотел его убить. Но рисковал он ради того, чтобы евреи продолжали выполнять заповедь обрезания, чтобы та часть народа, которая прекратила делать обрезание своим детям, вновь вернулась к исполнению этой заповеди. Именно поэтому «дух» пророка Элияу всегда присутствует там, где делают обрезание.

Сандак

ОбрезаниеВо время обрезания ребенок лежит на коленях одного из присутствующих, который сидит на специальном стуле. Этот человек называется сандак. Быть сандаком — большая честь. Сандак как бы становится родственником семьи ребенка. Тот, кого избрали на роль сандака, должен в честь обрезания надеть праздничные одежды. Сандаком может быть только праведный человек. Лучше всего, если отец новорожденного мальчика назначит сандаком своего отца, т.е. дедушку ребенка, тем самым проявив уважение к родителю (что само по себе большая заповедь). Колени сандака становятся подобны жертвеннику, на котором приносят жертвы Г-споду. Считается, что миссия сандака поможет человеку приобрести богатство, поэтому не дают одному и тому же человеку быть сандаком двух сыновей одного человека, а приглашают кого-нибудь другого. Быть сандаком еще почетней, чем быть моэлем.

Одному из присутствующих оказывают честь положить мальчика на колени сандаку. Во многих общинах это делает отец ребенка. Отец как бы назначает моэля своим посланцем для выполнения заповеди обрезания.

Моэль готовит инструменты, лекарства, подготавливает ребенка. После этого он произносит благословение:

БАРУХ АТА АДО-НАЙ ЭЛО-ЭЙНУ МЕЛЕХ АОЛАМ АШЕР КИДШАНУ БЕМИЦВОТАВ ВЕЦИВАНУ АЛЬ А-МИЛА
«Благословен Ты, Г-сподь, наш Б-г, Король вселенной. Который освятил нас Своими заповедями и заповедал нам обрезание».

Все присутствующие, кроме моэля, отвечают: «амен» («Верно», «Да будет так»). Непосредственно после благословения моэль отрезает крайнюю плоть, разрывает внутренний лепесток и подгибает его к месту разреза.

Сразу после того, как моэль отрезал крайнюю плоть, но еще до того, как он разорвал внутренний лепесток, отец ребенка произносит благословение:

БАРУХ АТА АДО-НАЙ ЭЛО-ЭЙНУ МЕЛЕХ АОЛАМ АШЕР КИДШАНУ БЕМИЦВОТАВ ВЕЦИВАНУ ЛЕАХНИСО БИВРИТО ШЕЛЬ АВРААМ АВИНУ
«Благословен Ты, Г-сподь, наш Б-г, Король вселенной, Который освятил нас Своими заповедями и заповедал нам ввести его в союз нашего праотца Авраама».

Все присутствующие, кроме отца, отвечают «амен», после чего отец произносит следующее благословение:

БАРУХ АТА АДО-НАЙ ЭЛО-ЭЙНУ МЕЛЕХ АОЛАМ ШЕЭХЕЯНУ ВЕКИЕМАНУ ВЕИГИАНУ ЛИЗМАН А-ЗЭ
«Благословен Ты, Г-сподь, наш Б-г, Король вселенной, поддерживающий нашу жизнь и наше существование и давший нам дожить до этого времени».

Все присутствующие отвечают «амен» и продолжают (за пределами Эрец-Исраэль многие не произносят этих слов):

КЕШЕМ ШЕНИХНАС ЛАБРИТ, КЕН ИИКАНЕС ЛЕТОРА УЛЕХУПА УЛЕМААСИМ ТОВИМ
«Так же как приобщился он к союзу — пусть придет он к Торе, и к хупе, и к добрым делам!»

Если отец ребенка не присутствует при обрезании или не может произнести первое благословение, его произносит дедушка ребенка или сандак.

Благословения ребенку

После окончания обряда обрезания одному из присутствующих передают ребенка, и тот держит его все время, пока произносятся благословения. Другой берет в руки бокал вина и произносит над ним два первых благословения. Он же (или кто-то другой) произносит молитву о здоровье и благополучии ребенка и его родителей. Сразу же после этого ребенку дают имя по выбору родителей. Когда в молитве доходят до слов бедамайих хайи… («Ценой своей крови живи…»), младенцу дают капельку вина из бокала. Тот, кто произнес благословения (или кто-то из слушающих), отпивает вино из бокала.
Все присутствующие поздравляют родителей младенца словами: Мазал-тов («В добрый час!»).

Как поступают с крайней плотью после обрезания

Ее закапывают в землю на глубину 8-10 см. Этим актом как бы символизируется соприкосновение еврея с Создателем. Только после обрезания еврей считается настоящим евреем. Свершившееся событие отмечается шумным застольем в кругу родственников и друзей.

Как сделать обрезание в Петербурге

Обрезание в Первой семейной клинике Петербурга

Начиная с июля 2012 года обряд брит-мила проводится в Первой семейной клинике Петербурга. Это совместная инициатива синагоги «На Тверской», Большой Хоральной Синагоги и Первой семейной клиники Петербурга (гендиректор — прихожанин синагоги «На Тверской» Аркадий Зеликович Трейгер). Обрезания делает моэль Ишая Шафит в операционной, под наблюдением хирургов высшей медицинской категории. При необходимости и желании пациента возможен общий наркоз; детям дается специальный «детский» наркоз. После обрезания человек сразу встает и живет обычной жизнью! А для желающих в клинике имеется комната отдыха. Кроме того, предусмотрено и медицинское сопровождение в первые дни после обрезания: можно показаться врачу, сделать перевязку или обратиться с любыми возникшими вопросами.

Этот проект называется «Брит-Моше» и осуществляется в память о Президенте Всемирного конгресса грузинских евреев Михаиле (Моше) Габриеловиче Мирилашвили. Проект создал и возглавляет координатор общины грузинских евреев С.-Петербурга Яков Пичхадзе.

Ишая Шафит — лучший специалист в России. Его приглашают делать обрезания во всех еврейских общинах России и СНГ.

Полтора года Ишая Шафит практиковался в Израиле, а в 1994-м приехал в Россию. За эти годы сделал десятки тысяч обрезаний евреям из Петербурга, Москвы, Магадана, Биробиджана, Челябинска, Вологды, Тольятти, Махачкалы и многих других городов.

Стоимость

Благодаря финансовому участию Общины грузинских евреев обрезание делается бесплатно. Но если у вас есть желание компенсировать расходы, такая инициатива приветствуется. Принято также делать пожертвования на благотворительные цели.

Куда обращаться

В Информационный отдел Большой Хоральной Синагоги, тел. +7 (812) 713-8186

Документы

Для прохождения обряда обрезания в синагоге необходимы документы, подтверждающие наличие еврейских корней по материнской линии. Если вам необходима консультация по поводу установления еврейства, запишитесь на прием к раввину Менахему-Менделу Певзнеру по телефону +7 (812) 713-8186 или +7 (812) 714-4428

Интересная традиция… Обрезание у евреев — в каком возрасте и как проводится обряд, кто и зачем его делает

Обрезание – удаление у представителей мужского пола крайней плоти – практикуется в различных уголках мира.

Одна из самых старинных традиций, связанных с этой процедурой, имеется у еврейского народа.

Обряд обрезания у евреев — делают ли его современные мужчины, кто проводит обрезание и вообще зачем делают обрезание мужчинам евреям? Ответы в нашей статье.

Скрыть содержание

  • История обряда
  • Название обряда обрезания у евреев
  • Религиозный смысл
  • Является ли обрезание обязательным для евреев?
  • Когда его обычно делают?
  • Можно ли делать взрослому мужчине?
  • Как проходит обрезание у евреев?
  • Фото

История обряда

Когда еврейский народ стал практиковать обрезание, точно сказать невозможно: корни этой традиции теряются в глубине веков.

Однако ученые утверждают, что иссечение крайней плоти пользовалось популярностью у жителей Ханаана (эдомитян, аммонитян и моавитян), египтян и финикийцев, обитавших на Ближнем Востоке в III тыс. до н. э. Евреи переняли обряд именно у них.

Известно, что библейский пророк Иезекииль выступал за подобную инициацию мальчиков, говоря: «В кровях твоих живи!».

Однако при финикийской царице Иезавели издавались указы, запрещающие обрезание, что сделало обрезание на какое-то время тайной процедурой.

Гонения поклонников обрезания продолжались и во II в. до н. э. во время владычества Антиоха II Епифана, стремившегося сделать еврейскую нацию частью эллинской культуры. Те, кто делал иссечение крайней плоти своим сыновьям, приговаривались к смертной казни.

Приверженцы обряда также подвергались преследованиям во времена Веспасиана (после уничтожения Иерусалима) – именно по специфическому виду полового члена определялась национальная принадлежность мужчины, а следовательно, и налог, который ему следовало уплатить.

Евреи, подвергшиеся удалению крайней плоти, были в опасности и во время правления правителя Адриана (117 г. н. э.), и при нацистском режиме.

Название обряда обрезания у евреев

Как у евреев называется обрезание? На иврите обрезание у иудеев называется «брит мила» в соответствии с канонами иудаизма. Это слово обозначает завет (договор) между Господом и еврейским народом.

Справка! Обрезание имеет не только физический, но и духовный смысл. Хотя Филон Александрийский утверждал, что иссечение крайней плоти делается по гигиеническим соображениям, в талмудическом труде «Шаббат» знаменитые раввины описывают эту процедуру как акт самопожертвования, выполнение именно евреями Божьей воли.

Религиозный смысл

Зачем делают обрезание евреям? Что такое обряд обрезания? Согласно Библии, процедура удаления крайней плоти впервые была сделана патриархом Авраамом самому себе и всем близким мужского пола как символ договора между высшими силами и еврейской нацией, согласно которому евреи должны были получить в полную собственность Ханаан.

Древняя еврейская книга «Хинух» гласит, что человек рождается со множеством физических и физических недостатков. В течение жизни он должен постараться их исправить. А поскольку крайняя плоть также считается излишеством, то есть недостатком, от нее нужно как можно скорее избавиться. Вот зачем евреи делают обрезание.

Это станет первым шагом к духовному очищению и внутренней целостности. Обрезание у евреев необходимо для освобождения от материального и низменного и прямого общения с высшими сферами, что стало причиной появления большого количества пророков среди еврейской нации.

Преимущества обрезанных евреев перед необрезанными.

Почему евреи делают обрезание? Этот обряд дает определенные преимущества представителям еврейской нации как в культурном, так и в медицинском плане. К плюсам процедуры относятся:

  1. Уважение в своей среде. Издавна к евреям, не подвергшимся обрезанию, относились слегка презрительно как к людям, отказавшимся от своей богоизбранности. Они даже не допускались к отмечанию Пасхи и праздничным жертвоприношениям.
  2. Профилактика онкологических заболеваний полового члена и воспалительных заболеваний мочевыводящих путей.
  3. Существенное уменьшение риска заболеть инфекционными заболеваниями мочеполовой сферы: евреи болеют ими в несколько раз реже даже при регулярном незащищенном сексе.
  4. Более эстетичный вид мужского полового органа. Не всем женщинам нравится видеть некрасивую складку кожи над головкой.

    Важно! Врачи подтверждают, что представители мужского пола, подвергшиеся иссечению крайней плоти, практически не имеют проблем с эрекцией, а половой акт становится более продолжительным за счет снижения чувствительности головки.

  5. Евреи реже страдают от фимоза, при котором невозможно оголить головку полового члена, и парафимоза.

Является ли обрезание обязательным для евреев?

Делают ли обрезание евреям в современном истории? Согласно Торе любой отец обязан позаботиться о совершении обряда над своим сыном, таким образом подчеркнув его еврейскую национальность и приобщив к традиции и культуре предков. Если он отказывается это сделать, он подлежит суду.

Особенно поощряется такая процедура среди радикальных представителей иудаизма и в Израиле, где многие эмигранты делают удаление крайней плоти даже во взрослом возрасте.

Однако заставить родителей сделать операцию раввин не может: он лишь настоятельно советует не отказываться от этого. На самом деле согласно канонам религии любой малыш, рожденный матерью-еврейкой, является неотъемлемой частью нации, что не нуждается в дополнительном подтверждении.

Когда его обычно делают?

В каком возрасте делают обрезание у евреев? Обычно еврейские младенцы-мальчики принимают участие в брит мила на восьмые сутки после появления на свет. Для этого есть несколько причин:

  • К этому времени крохе удается немного освоиться в новом для него мире, так что обряд проходит несколько легче.
  • В течение недели родственники наблюдают за новорожденным, чтобы удостовериться в его крепком здоровье, позволяющем совершить обряд.
  • В соответствии с Талмудом мать малыша за этот период значительно окрепнет и сможет полноценно участвовать в радостном событии.
  • Еврейская религия говорит о том, что 8 дней как раз нужны для того, чтобы младенец пережил свою первую субботу – Шаббат, ощутил ее святость и был подготовлен божественной благодатью к процедуре.

Когда делают обрезание, если мальчик болеет? Обряд откладывают до полного исцеления, но в Шаббат его уже не проводят. В других случаях священная еврейская суббота – также подходящий день для иссечения крайней плоти: хотя в нее запрещено проливать кровь, брит мил является исключением.

Важно! Обрезание традиционно делают днем, до захода солнца. Еврейские священнослужители утверждают, что лучшее время для этого – раннее утро: семья таким образом демонстрирует Богу свое желание поскорее выполнить данный ему завет.

Можно ли делать взрослому мужчине?

Во сколько лет можно делать обрезание? Традиции еврейского народа предусматривают возможность проведения обряда и у взрослых мужчин. Это символизирует их переход в иудаизм, их желание полностью соблюдать каноны веры и жить в соответствии с обычаями Израиля.

Такое обрезание носит название гиюр и сейчас производится только в больнице под наркозом квалифицированными хирургами. Также гиюр делается, если у матери ребенка до его рождения умерло 2 детей после брит мила.

Как проходит обрезание у евреев?

Согласно обычаю обрезание необходимо делать в синагоге, сразу после завершения утренней молитвы.

Древние источники говорят, что проведение этого обряда можно доверить любому мужчине-еврею (и даже представительнице прекрасного пола в отсутствие мужчин), но современные евреи предпочитают поручить это специалисту с хорошей медицинской подготовкой – моэлю.

Если такового нет, обращаются в обычную больницу к хирургу, однако раввин должен обязательно присутствовать при операции.

Справка! Кроме моэля, важную роль в процедуре играет сандак – мужчина, который держит малыша на руках и немного придерживает его ножки, чтобы он не дернулся. Это очень почетная миссия для каждого еврея.

Как делают обрезание евреи? При обрезании используют простейший инструментарий: чаще всего лезвие, тщательно заточенное с обеих сторон. Это объясняется тем, что моэль, взволнованный криками младенца, может взять инструмент не той стороной. Процедуру выполняют следующм образом:

  1. Моэль отделяет крайнюю плоть от полового члена остро заточенной бритвой, делая это вокруг всего органа.
  2. Затем он разрывает слизистую оболочку крайней плоти изнутри, чтобы предотвратить сужение ее отверстия из-за появления рубцов, и удаляет кровь посредством специфической трубки (раньше ее высасывали ртом).
  3. В конце обрезания половой член обильно посыпается мелко истолченным порошком прогнившей древесины или спорами растения ликоподий.
  4. Головку члена оставляют оголенной.

Во время обряда не накладываются швы и не используются обезболивающие лекарства. Если кровотечение слишком обильное, иногда применяют тугую повязку.

Праздник обрезания у евреев проходит так: после завершения операции по иссечению крайней плоти все окружающие поздравляют отца и мать мальчика, восклицая «Мазл тов!» и желая младенцу приобщиться к Торе, добрым делам и удачно жениться.

Новорожденный считается вошедшим в союз предка Авраама и получает традиционное еврейское имя.

Отец малыша во время заключительной стадии обрезания обязательно произносит бенедикцию – особую молитву, начинающуюся со слов «Барух Атта», что означает «благословен Ты», и просит благословения у Иеговы для своего отпрыска.

Затем мальчика передают отцу либо почетному гостю, а моэль поднимает бокал с вином и произносит благодарственную молитву, благословляя вино и Бога, подарившего избранному еврейскому народу завет.

Справка! Традиционно моэль дает малышу несколько капель десертного сладкого вина хорошего качества.

Церемония завершается исполнением торжественных гимнов и праздничной трапезой со старинными еврейскими блюдами.

Фото

Обрезание у евреев, фото:

А вот так выглядит праздник еврейского обрезания, фото:

Обрезание в иудаизме – крайне важный обряд, который позволяет представителям этого народа выделяться среди единоверцев и при этом эффективно заботиться об интимной гигиене. Это сводный ответ на вопрос — зачем евреи делают обрезание мужчинам. Однако обряд проводится исключительно по желанию семьи.

Брит мила: как простая заповедь оказывает всемирное и непреходящее влияние на еврейский народ?

Брит мила, или обрезание, совершается мальчику на восьмой день от рождения. Обряд обрезания выполняет моhель (моэль), человек, прошедший специальную подготовку, согласно еврейскому закону об обрезании. Моhель удаляет крайнюю плоть грудничка и выпускает кровь из его репродуктивного органа, после чего ребёнку даётся еврейское имя.

Почему брит мила?

«Брит мила» дословно переводится как «завет обрезания». Авраам, праотец иудаизма, был первым человеком, получившим заповедь брит мила. Он, действительно, обрезал самого себя.


Авраам дал обет Б-гу, что он научит своих потомков служить Г-споду с искренним посвящением. Со своей стороны, Б-г гарантировал, что сохранит жизнь потомкам Авраама — последующие поколения назывались «народом Израиля», — ныне известным как «евреи».

Вс-вышний заверил Авраама, что до тех пор, пока будет существовать человеческий род, евреи никогда не истребятся. Союз между Б-гом и Авраамом был скреплён актом обрезания.

Совершая акт обрезания, евреи увековечивают этот нерушимый союз из поколения в поколения и поныне.

Суть обрезания в иудаизме

Обрезание, брит мила, совершается ребёнку мужского пола на восьмой день от рождения, намекая на идею вечного существования народа.

В Торе немаловажную роль играют числовые значения. Например, число «6» вбирает в себя четыре части света (север, юг, запад, восток) и два направления (вверх, вниз). Сюда также включаются шесть дней творения и шестидневная рабочая неделя.

Число «7» добавляет к физическому духовный элемент. Шаббат — седьмой день, он привносит в нашу жизнь красоту духовного мира, хотя и пребывает в мире материальном. Число «8» целиком и полностью выходит за пределы вещественного мира. Например, восьмидневное ханукальное чудо превалирует над границами нашего разума, превосходя все физические законы природы и её ограничения. Число «8» открывает нам широту окружающей реальности в её непостижимом объёме.

Б-жье обещание потомкам Авраама как нации пребудет вовек, вопреки всем законам природы. Доказательство тому — история, отворяющая нам завесу значимых событий, нацеленных на уничтожение еврейского народа. К ним сопричастны египтяне, греки, римляне — слава и гордость человеческой истории, которые, как народности, давно канули в лету. А евреи, нация из числа не столь значительных, всё ещё живут и здравствуют.

Брит мила, осуществляемая на восьмой день, напоминает нам об этом сверхъестественном феномене. «Еврейское выживание» противоречит любым законам природы, более того, оно существует вопреки им. Неспроста знак обрезания располагается на репродуктивном органе. Этот знак символизирует идею вечного и незыблемого семени еврейского народа.

В дополнение скажем, что брит мила выполняется на органе, который отождествляется с сильными плотскими желаниями, превосходящими остальные влечения нашего тела.

Цель ритуального обрезания у евреев

Если переводить брит мила просто как «обрезание», а не как «завет обрезания», можно ошибочно подумать, что наиважнейший элемент мицвы — именно удаление крайней плоти.

На самом же деле обрезание идёт рука об руку с намерением заключить союз между Б-гом и Его народом.

По этой причине человек, перенёсший хирургическое обрезание без выполнения заповеди, должен пройти особую процедуру посвящения, дабы привести в исполнение мицву. Последующее же действие не столь болезненно. Необходимо взять небольшое количество крови из полового органа, ибо совершается это во имя посвящения брит мила.

Личное посвящение

Брит мила лежит в основе еврейской преемственной целостности, которая укрепляет личное посвящение Б-гу. Как только посвящение достигнет своей цели, общая приверженность возникнет сама по себе.

В своём завете обрезания Авраам клятвенно обещал научить своих потомков служить Б-гу с должным посвящением. Брит мила — квинтэссенция этого личного посвящения. Община раскрывает нам Б-га в целостности, но только брит мила учит нас личному посвящению Б-гу.

Пусть мы все удостоимся чести привести наших детей в согласие с заветом Авраама и увидеть их духовный расцвет и подъём в своей приверженности Творцу.

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