Священный еврейский праздник

В еврейской традиции история народа и религия неразрывно связаны и равно почитаемы (Фото: tomertu, по лицензии Shutterstock.com)

В еврейской традиции история народа и религия неразрывно связаны и равно почитаемы. Большая часть праздников основана на событиях, описанных в священных книгах. Есть и особые даты календаря — траурные — в ознаменование трагических поворотов еврейской истории. С каждым праздником или трагической датой связаны определенные обычаи.

Еврейский календарь

Как праздничные, так и траурные даты указываются по еврейскому календарю, структура которого обусловлена требованиями Торы. Это календарь лунно-солнечный, основывается на специальных вычислениях. Начало месяцев в нем совпадает с новолунием. Таким образом получается, что месяц составляет 29-30 суток.

Год, составленный из таких месяцев, «отстает» от «солнечного» примерно на 12 дней, а согласно еврейской традиции, все значимые даты всегда должны приходиться на назначенные для них времена года. Поэтому в 7 годах из 19-летнего цикла вводится добавочный месяц, получивший название второй адар (адар шени, или адар бет). Его вставляют перед месяцем адар, который таким образом становится 13-м месяцем, и всегда состоит из 29 дней.

Кроме того, начало года не может приходиться на воскресенье, среду или пятницу, его передвигают в этом случае на один или даже два дня.

Четыре Новых года

Еще одной особенностью еврейского календаря является то, что в нем есть целых четыре Новых года, причем ни один из них не приходится на первое января. Дело в том, что во времена, предшествовавшие рассеянию еврейского народа, существовало несколько важных для всего народа годичных циклов, отсчет которых начинался от определенных дат. Правила, устанавливающие эти циклы, со временем обрели статус заповедей. Существовало 4 таких цикла и, следовательно, и четыре Новых года:

1 нисана начинается отсчет месяцев. 1-й месяц — нисан, 2-й — ияр и т.д. Кроме того, эта дата является Новым годом для отсчета правления царей: если, например, некий царь начал царствовать, скажем, в адаре, то с 1 нисана начинается 2-й год его царствования. Поэтому с 1 нисана — новый год для отсчета месяцев и всего, что связано с еврейскими царями.

В те же времена Храма каждый еврей должен был отделить десятую часть своего скота, чтобы съесть его в Иерусалиме. Отсчет года, в течение которого надо было отделить эту десятину, начинался 1 элула.

15 швата — это Новый год для деревьев, начало отсчета урожая деревьев для отделения от него десятины.

1 тишрея — это Новый год для счета лет от сотворения мира и для суда Создателя над всеми людьми и странами.

Кроме значимых дат, отмечаемых всего один раз в год, в еврейской традиции статус праздника имеют и даты, соотносящиеся с более короткими временнЫми промежутками — месяцем и неделей. Иными словами, в еврейской традиции каждое новомесячье (Рош Ходеш) и конец каждой недели (суббота, шабат) также являются праздниками.

Главный праздник
ШАБАТ

Прекращение повседневной, будничной работы в седьмой день недели — одна из главных заповедей Ветхого Завета, который гласит: «Помни день субботний и чти его: шесть дней работай и завершай все дела свои, а в седьмой — все дела делай только для Бога». Поэтому главный праздник еврейского года бывает каждую неделю.

Некоторые ученые полагают, что происхождение праздника находится в тесной связи с сакральным числом «семь» (шева). С глубокой древности магия чисел была широко распространена у многих народов Востока. Число «семь» (а также кратные ему) на Ближнем Востоке, в том числе у евреев, считалось счастливым, было выражением полноты, завершенности. Таков Субботний год (Шемита) — каждый седьмой год, во время которого надлежало прощать долги и давать отдых пашне. Через семь семилетий — 49 лет — наступал Юбилейный год (Йовель), когда следовало отпускать рабов на волю и возвращать земельные участки, отобранные за долги. Семь дней надлежало отмечать праздники Пресных хлебов и Суккот, семь недель разделяли праздники Песах и Шавуот, на небе древние евреи насчитывали семь планет и т.д.

Указания Торы выделять Субботу как особый день можно разделить на два типа. Первый связывает Субботу с творением мира: после шести дней творения наступила Суббота — и сам Творец прекратил работу. Т.е. соблюдение Субботы — это знак признания того, что Бог сотворил мир, и что мир этот находится под постоянным Божественным управлением. (Бытие 2:2): «И закончил Бог в день Седьмой работу Свою, которую Он сделал, и отдыхал («вайшбот» — отсюда «шабат» — «покой») в День Седьмой от всей работы Своей, которую Он сделал. И благословил Бог День Седьмой и освятил его, ибо он есть Суббота («покой») от всякой производительной работы, и ее сотворил Бог, делая мир».

Второй тип указаний напоминает о выходе из Египта: это событие превратило еврея-раба в свободного человека; так и Суббота освобождает еврея от рабства повседневности. «Не делай никакой работы ни ты, ни раб твой, чтобы отдохнул раб твой и рабыня твоя, как ты, и помни, что рабом был ты в земле Египетской, но Господь, Бог твой, вывел тебя оттуда рукою крепкою и мышцей простертою, потому и заповедал тебе Господь, Бог твой, установить День Субботний». Таким образом, первый отрывок указывает на универсальное значение Субботы, о котором должно помнить все человечество, а второй — на его национальное значение, о завете между человеком и Богом.

Особое отношение к субботе подчеркивается тем, что самые строгие ограничения на работу приходятся именно на субботу — традиция запрещает производить в субботу «будничные» действия, нарушающие праздничность субботы. К таким действиям можно отнести все связанное с денежными расчетами и повседневной работой (вплоть до приготовления пищи), а также все разговоры на «будничные» темы. В случае совпадения субботы с другими праздничными датами еврейского календаря порядок праздничных молитв изменяется «в сторону» субботы, а посты (кроме Йом Кипура) переносятся на другой день. И, кроме того, вся Тора разбита на недельные главы, которые читаются всеми евреями по субботам, так что Шабат — это точки «выравнивания» всего еврейского народа в изучении Торы.

Празднование Субботы включает выполнение предписаний Торы и мудрецов, связанных с освящением, отделением этого дня. Некоторые из этих предписаний имеют конкретное выражение: перед Субботой зажигают свечи, произнося специальное благословение; в Субботу устраивают три праздничные трапезы, и первые две из них начинают с особой молитвы — киддуш, т.е. освящения Субботы над бокалом вина. Другие предписания направлены на создание особой праздничной атмосферы: люди надевают красивую одежду, семья собирается вместе за празднично накрытым столом, едят вкусную еду, пьют вино.

Суббота входит в еврейский дом в момент зажигания субботних свечей. Вечером в пятницу, обязательно до захода солнца, хозяйка дома зажигает субботние свечи и произносит благословение на зажигание свечей. После этого считается, что Суббота началась.

Новомесячье
РОШ ХОДЕШ

Первый день месяца (или последний день предыдущего месяца, если он состоял из 30 дней) — Рош Ходеш — полупраздничный день в еврейском календаре. Освящение Рош Ходеш — это основа всех праздников еврейского календаря и связанных с ними заповедей, поскольку от правильного установления Рош Ходеш зависят даты всех остальных праздников.

До разрушения Второго Храма Начало Месяца на основании показаний свидетелей, видевших молодой месяц своими глазами, устанавливала и освящала особая судейская коллегия, Санхедрин. В те времена этот день праздновался, как и другие праздники: в кругу семьи, с застольем, в праздничных одеждах и т. д. Видимо, традиция такой трапезы происходит от обычая угощать свидетелей, пришедших в Санхедрин сообщить о появлении новой луны. Рош Ходеш был тем днем, когда было принято посещать известного пророка и спрашивать его о судьбе народа Израиля и о личных проблемах. В Храме в этот день проводилась особая служба, сопровождавшаяся трублением в трубы и жертвоприношениями.

Сегодня начало месяца не сопровождается тем празднеством, которое было когда-то принято. Отчасти это связано с тем, что сегодня еврейский календарь устанавливается не по показаниям свидетелей. Тем не менее, на этот день и сегодня распространяются некоторые свойства праздничных дней. Хотя традиция не запрещает работать в этот день, существует обычай, не рекомендующий женщинам выполнять работу, которую можно перенести на другой день. Этот обычай связывают с легендой о поклонении золотому тельцу. Написано в Пиркей де-рабби Элиэзер (гл. 45): «Когда мужчины просили у женщин золотые украшения, чтобы отлить золотого тельца, те отказались их отдать и не послушались мужчин. За это Всевышний одарил их и в этом мире, и в будущем. В этом — заповедью новомесячья, в будущем — тем, что их красота обновится подобно юному месяцу».

В книге пророка Исайи говорится о значении Рош Ходеш в будущем — во время Мессианского Царства, когда сам Мессия будет править из Иерусалима, с трона Давидова, люди будут приходить со всех сторон на поклонение Ему. Таким образом, Рош Ходеш будет особым днем поклонения. Видимо, это пророчество также определяет праздничный характер новомесячья в традиции.

Категории еврейских праздников

Еврейские праздники отличает не только строго установленный для каждого праздника ритуал, позволяющий воссоздать события, легшие в основу праздника, но и особое отношение к работе. В праздник запрещена всякая работа. Праздник всегда противопоставлялся будням, ежедневным обыденным занятиям. Его характерная черта — «ничегонеделание» (в смысле несовершение обычных занятий).

Исходя из этого еврейские праздники можно разделить на следующие категории:

1. Шабат (Суббота) и Йом Кипур (в эти дни полностью запрещено работать).
2. Праздники Торы (запрещена вся работа, кроме приготовления пищи) — Рош а-Шана, Песах, Шавуот, Суккот, Шмини Ацерет и Симхат Тора. Во времена Храма, по крайней мере в один из трех праздников года (Песах, Шавуот и Суккот), еврей совершал паломничество в Иерусалим.
3. Полупраздники по Торе (Холь-ха-Моэд): промежуточные дни праздников Песах и Суккот. Можно делать только такую работу, которую сложно перенести на другое время.
4. Рош Ходеш — тоже лучше не работать, так как этот праздник тоже выделен Торой.
5. Установленные пророками и мудрецами «праздники всего Израиля», соблюдение которых — заповедь: Пурим и Ханука. Работать в эти дни не запрещено, но все же заниматься делами не рекомендуется.
6. Установленные пророками и мудрецами «посты всего Израиля»: 17 Тамуза, 9 Ава, Пост Гедалии, 10 Тевета, Таанит Эстер.
7. Общераспространенные праздники, установленные пророками и мудрецами, не имеющие статуса заповеди. Работать не запрещено (15 Швата, Лаг ба-омер).
8. Всеобщие памятные даты, не имеющие особых праздничных обычаев — День памяти героев Израиля, День Независимости, День Иерусалима, Йом а-Шоа.

Основные черты еврейских праздников

Для еврейских праздников можно выделить основные черты:
1. Прекращение, запрет работы. Разрешается, однако, готовить пищу (последнее не распространяется на Шабат и Йом Кипур).
2. Предписание «веселиться» (кроме Йом Кипура и постов). В праздничные дни не соблюдают траура, и даже семидневный траур по умершему переносят на следующий за праздником день.
3. Праздничная трапеза. Порядок праздничных трапез в целом одинаков: сначала произносится благословение над вином (киддуш), затем совершается ритуальное омовение рук, после чего следует благословение на хлеб и собственно сама трапеза.
4. «Священное собрание», т.е. собрание всех членов общины для совершения праздничных церемоний и богослужения.
5. Проведение обряда «авдала» — разделение праздника и будней.
6. Все еврейские праздники начинаются вечером, с заходом солнца, так как считается, что в этот момент зарождается новый день.

Кроме того, для каждого праздника характерны отличительные обряды и церемонии (а до разрушения Храма в 70 году — жертвоприношения, которые были после этого события отменены). В принципе все названные черты не являются чем-то специфическим, присущим только еврейским праздникам. Веселый характер праздника, устройство праздничных пиров, определенные ритуалы, прекращение будничных занятий — все это в той или иной мере характерно для любого праздника.

Еще одной из отличительных черт еврейских праздников, начиная с библейской эпохи, была их массовость, вовлеченность в праздничное действо всех, без различия пола, возраста и социального статуса. В Ветхом Завете предписывается праздновать и веселиться мужчинам и женщинам, свободным и несвободным, а также живущим «среди сынов Израиля» иноземцам.

Траурные дни

В еврейской истории есть четыре особо печальные даты, связанные с разрушением страны, Иерусалима, Храма и рассеянием еврейского народа. Эти дни отмечаются постом, специальными молитвами и обычаями.

10-е Тевета — начало осады Иерусалима Навуходоносором
17-е Тамуза — первый пролом в стене Иерусалима
9-е Ава — дата разрушения Храмов, Первого и Второго
3-е Тишрея – Пост Гедалии — убийство Гедалии, последнее следствие разрушения первого Храма — полное изгнание евреев из Израиля.

Хотя посты и установлены в знак скорби, охватившей Израиль после разрушения Храма, в память о мучениях, перенесенных евреями, но все же скорбь не является главным содержанием этих дней. Основная цель постов — пробуждать сердца и прокладывать путь к раскаянию, напоминать о дурных поступках, о событиях, которые привели к несчастьям. Размышления о грехах приводят нас на путь исправления. Общественные посты установлены для того, чтобы еврейский народ пробудился для раскаяния, вспоминая. Чтобы несчастья прекратились, каждый человек должен задуматься над своими поступками, осознать и раскаяться.

При составлении раздела была использована информация сайтов www.jewish.ru, toldot.ru, mjcc.ru, evrey.com, www.machanaim.org, israelinfo.ru

Jewish holidays, also known as Jewish festivals or Yamim Tovim (Hebrew: ימים טובים, lit. ‘Good Days’, or singular יום טוב Yom Tov, in transliterated Hebrew []),^[1] are holidays observed in Judaism and by Jews^{[Note 1]} throughout the Hebrew calendar. They include religious, cultural and national elements, derived from three sources: biblical mitzvot («commandments»), rabbinic mandates, and the history of Judaism and the State of Israel.

Jewish holidays occur on the same dates every year in the Hebrew calendar, but the dates vary in the Gregorian. This is because the Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar calendar (based on the cycles of both the sun and moon), whereas the Gregorian is a solar calendar.

General concepts[edit]

Groupings[edit]

Certain terms are used very commonly for groups of holidays.

• The Hebrew-language term Yom Tov (יום טוב), sometimes referred to as «festival day,» usually refers to the six biblically-mandated festival dates on which all activities prohibited on Shabbat are prohibited, except for some related to food preparation.^[2] These include the first and seventh days of Passover (the Feast of Unleavened Bread / the Feast of Matzot — Exodus 23:15, Deuteronomy 16:16), [first day of] Shavuot, both days of Rosh Hashanah, first day of Sukkot, and [first day of] Shemini Atzeret. By extension, outside the Land of Israel, the second-day holidays known under the rubric Yom tov sheni shel galuyot (literally, «Second Yom Tov of the Diaspora»)—including Simchat Torah—are also included in this grouping. Colloquially, Yom Kippur, a biblically-mandated date on which even food preparation is prohibited, is often included in this grouping. The tradition of keeping two days of Yom Tov in the diaspora has existed since roughly 300 BCE.
• The English-language term High Holy Days (or High Holidays) refers to Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur collectively. Its Hebrew analogue, Yamim Nora’im (ימים נוראים), «Days of Awe”, is more flexible: it can refer just to those holidays, or to the Ten Days of Repentance, or to the entire penitential period, starting as early as the beginning of Elul, and (more rarely) ending as late as Shemini Atzeret.
• The term Three Pilgrimage Festivals (שלוש רגלים, shalosh regalim) refers to Passover (the Feast of Unleavened Bread / Feast of Matzot), Shavuot and Sukkot. Within this grouping Sukkot normally includes Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah.
• Ma’agal Hashana (מעגל השנה; «year cycle»), a more general term, is often used — especially in educational settings ^[3][4][5] — to refer to the overall study of the Jewish calendar, outlining the month by month events, with mitzvot and minhagim, and philosophical material, that occur over the course of the year.

Terminology used to describe holidays[edit]

Certain terminology is used in referring to different categories of holidays, depending on their source and their nature:

Shabbat (שבת) (Ashkenazi pron. from Yiddish shabbos), or Sabbath, is referred to by that name exclusively. Similarly, Rosh Chodesh (ראש חודש) is referred to by that name exclusively.

• Yom tov (יום טוב) (Ashkenazi pron. from Yid. yontif) (lit., «good day»): See «Groupings» above.
• Moed (מועד) («festive season»), plural moadim (מועדים), refers to any of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals of Passover, Shavuot and Sukkot. When used in comparison to Yom Tov, it refers to Chol HaMoed, the intermediate days of Passover and Sukkot.
• Ḥag or chag (חג) («festival»), plural chagim (חגים), can be used whenever yom tov or moed is. It is also used to describe Hanukkah and Purim, as well as Yom Ha’atzmaut (Israeli Independence Day) and Yom Yerushalayim (Jerusalem Day).
• Ta’anit (תענית), or, less commonly, tzom (צום), refers to a fast. These terms are generally used to describe the rabbinic fasts, although tzom is used liturgically to refer to Yom Kippur as well.^[6]

«Work» on Sabbath and biblical holidays[edit]

The most notable common feature of Shabbat and the biblical festivals is the requirement to refrain from melacha on these days.^{[Note 2]} Melacha is most commonly translated as «work»; perhaps a better translation is «creative-constructive work». Strictly speaking, Melacha is defined in Jewish law (halacha) by 39 categories of labor that were used in constructing the Tabernacle while the Jews wandered in the desert. As understood traditionally and in Orthodox Judaism:

• On Shabbat and Yom Kippur all melacha is prohibited.
• On a Yom Tov (other than Yom Kippur) which falls on a weekday, not Shabbat, most melacha is prohibited. Some melacha related to preparation of food is permitted.^{[Note 3][Note 4]}
• On weekdays during Chol HaMoed, melacha is not prohibited per se. However, melacha should be limited to that required either to enhance the enjoyment of the remainder of the festival or to avoid great financial loss.
• On other days, there are no restrictions on melacha.^{[Note 5]}

In principle, Conservative Judaism understands the requirement to refrain from melacha in the same way as Orthodox Judaism. In practice, Conservative rabbis frequently rule on prohibitions around melacha differently from Orthodox authorities.^[9] Still, there are a number of Conservative/Masorti communities around the world where Sabbath and Festival observance fairly closely resembles Orthodox observance.^{[Note 6]}

However, many, if not most, lay members of Conservative congregations in North America do not consider themselves Sabbath-observant, even by Conservative standards.^[10] At the same time, adherents of Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism do not accept halacha, and therefore restrictions on melacha, as binding at all.^{[Note 7]} Jews fitting any of these descriptions refrain from melacha in practice only as they personally see fit.

Shabbat and holiday work restrictions are always put aside in cases of pikuach nefesh, which is saving a human life. At the most fundamental level, if there is any possibility whatsoever that action must be taken to save a life, Shabbat restrictions are set aside immediately, and without reservation.^{[Note 8]} Where the danger to life is present but less immediate, there is some preference to minimize violation of Shabbat work restrictions where possible. The laws in this area are complex.^[11]

Second day of biblical festivals[edit]

The Torah specifies a single date on the Jewish calendar for observance of holidays. Nevertheless, festivals of biblical origin other than Shabbat and Yom Kippur are observed for two days outside the land of Israel, and Rosh Hashanah is observed for two days even inside the land of Israel.

Dates for holidays on the Jewish calendar are expressed in the Torah as «day x of month y.» Accordingly, the beginning of month y needs to be determined before the proper date of the holiday on day x can be fixed. Months in the Jewish calendar are lunar, and originally were thought to have been proclaimed by the blowing of a shofar.^[12] Later, the Sanhedrin received testimony of witnesses saying they saw the new crescent moon.^{[Note 9]} Then the Sanhedrin would inform Jewish communities away from its meeting place that it had proclaimed a new moon. The practice of observing a second festival day stemmed from delays in disseminating that information.^[13]

• Rosh Hashanah. Because of holiday restrictions on travel, messengers could not even leave the seat of the Sanhedrin until the holiday was over. Inherently, there was no possible way for anyone living away from the seat of the Sanhedrin to receive news of the proclamation of the new month until messengers arrived after the fact. Accordingly, the practice emerged that Rosh Hashanah was observed on both possible days, as calculated from the previous month’s start, everywhere in the world.^{[14][Note 10]}
• Three Pilgrimage Festivals. Sukkot and Passover fall on the 15th day of their respective months. This gave messengers two weeks to inform communities about the proclamation of the new month. Normally, they would reach most communities within the land of Israel within that time, but they might fail to reach communities farther away (such as those in Babylonia or overseas). Consequently, the practice developed that these holidays be observed for one day within Israel, but for two days (both possible days as calculated from the previous month’s start) outside Israel. This practice is known as yom tov sheni shel galuyot, «second day of festivals in exile communities».^[15]

For Shavuot, calculated as the fiftieth day from Passover, the above issue did not pertain directly, as the «correct» date for Passover would be known by then. Nevertheless, the Talmud applies the same rule to Shavuot, and to the Seventh Day of Passover and Shemini Atzeret, for consistency.^[16]

Yom Kippur is not observed for two days anywhere because of the difficulty of maintaining a fast over two days.^{[Note 11]}

Shabbat is not observed based on a calendar date, but simply at intervals of seven days. Accordingly, there is never a doubt of the date of Shabbat, and it need never be observed for two days.^{[Note 12]}

Adherents of Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism generally do not observe the second day of festivals,^[17] although some do observe two days of Rosh Hashanah.^[18]

Holidays of biblical and rabbinic (Talmudic) origin[edit]

Theories concerning possible non-Jewish sources for biblical holidays are beyond the scope of this article. Please see individual holiday articles, particularly Shabbat (History).

Shabbat—The Sabbath[edit]

Jewish law (halacha) accords Shabbat (שבת) the status of a holiday, a day of rest celebrated on the seventh day of each week. Jewish law defines a day as ending at either sundown or nightfall, when the next day then begins. Thus,

• Shabbat begins just before sundown Friday night. Its start is marked by the lighting of Shabbat candles and the recitation of Kiddush over a cup of wine.
• Shabbat ends at nightfall Saturday night. Its conclusion is marked by the prayer known as Havdalah.

The fundamental rituals and observances of Shabbat include:

• Reading of the Weekly Torah portion
• Abbreviation of the Amidah in the three regular daily services to eliminate requests for everyday needs
• Addition of a musaf service to the daily prayer services
• Enjoyment of three meals, often elaborate or ritualized, through the course of the day
• Restraint from performing melacha (see above).

In many ways, halakha (Jewish law) sees Shabbat as the most important holy day in the Jewish calendar.

• It is the first holiday mentioned in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), and God was the first one to observe it (Genesis).
• The Torah reading on Shabbat has more sections of parshiot (Torah readings) than on Yom Kippur or any other Jewish holiday.
• The prescribed penalty in the Torah for a transgression of Shabbat prohibitions is death by stoning (Exodus 31), while for other holidays the penalty is (relatively) less severe.
• Observance of Shabbat is the benchmark used in halacha to determine whether an individual is a religiously observant, religiously reliable member of the community.

Rosh Chodesh—The New Month[edit]

Rosh Chodesh (ראש חודש) (lit., «head of the month») is a minor holiday or observance occurring on the first day of each month of the Jewish calendar, as well as the last day of the preceding month if it has thirty days.

• Rosh Chodesh observance during at least a portion of the period of the prophets could be fairly elaborate.^[19]
• Over time there have been varying levels of observance of a custom that women are excused from certain types of work.^[20]
• Fasting is normally prohibited on Rosh Chodesh.

Beyond the preceding, current observance is limited to changes in liturgy.

In the month of Tishrei, this observance is superseded by the observance of Rosh Hashanah, a major holiday.

Related observances:

• The date of the forthcoming Rosh Chodesh is announced in synagogue on the preceding Sabbath.
• There are special prayers said upon observing the waxing moon for the first time each month.

Rosh Hashanah—The Jewish New Year[edit]

Selichot[edit]

The month of Elul that precedes Rosh Hashanah is considered to be a propitious time for repentance.^[21] For this reason, additional penitential prayers called Selichot are added to the daily prayers, except on Shabbat. Sephardi Jews add these prayers each weekday during Elul. Ashkenazi Jews recite them from the last Sunday (or Saturday night) preceding Rosh Hashanah that allows at least four days of recitations.

Rosh Hashanah[edit]

• Erev Rosh Hashanah (eve of the first day): 29 Elul
• Rosh Hashanah: 1–2 Tishrei

According to oral tradition, Rosh Hashanah (ראש השנה) (lit., «Head of the Year») is the Day of Memorial or Remembrance (יום הזכרון, Yom HaZikaron),^[22] and the day of judgment (יום הדין, Yom HaDin).^[23] God appears in the role of King, remembering and judging each person individually according to his/her deeds, and making a decree for each person for the following year.^[24]

The holiday is characterized by one specific mitzvah: blowing the shofar.^[25] According to the Torah, this is the first day of the seventh month of the calendar year,^[25] and marks the beginning of a ten-day period leading up to Yom Kippur. According to one of two Talmudic opinions, the creation of the world was completed on Rosh Hashanah.^[26]

Morning prayer services are lengthy on Rosh Hashanah, and focus on the themes described above: majesty and judgment, remembrance, the birth of the world, and the blowing of the shofar. Ashkenazi Jews recite the brief Tashlikh prayer, a symbolic casting off of the previous year’s sins, during the afternoon of Rosh Hashanah.

The Bible specifies Rosh Hashanah as a one-day holiday,^[25] but it is traditionally celebrated for two days, even within the Land of Israel. (See Second day of biblical festivals, above.)

Four New Years[edit]

The Torah itself does not use any term like «New Year» in reference to Rosh Hashanah. The Mishnah in Rosh Hashanah^[27] specifies four different «New Year’s Days» for different purposes:

• 1 Tishrei (conventional «Rosh Hashanah»): «new year» for calculating calendar years, sabbatical-year (shmita) and jubilee cycles, and the age of trees for purposes of Jewish law; and for separating grain tithes.
• 15 Shevat (Tu Bishvat): «new year» for trees–i.e., their current agricultural cycle and related tithes.
• 1 Nisan: «New Year» for counting months and major festivals and for calculating the years of the reign of a Jewish king
  • In biblical times, the day following 29 Adar, Year 1 of the reign of ___, would be followed by 1 Nisan, Year 2 of the reign of ___.
  • In modern times, although the Jewish calendar year number changes on Rosh Hashanah, the months are still numbered from Nisan.
  • The three pilgrimage festivals are always reckoned as coming in the order Passover-Shavuot-Sukkot. This can have religious law consequences even in modern times.
• 1 Elul (Rosh Hashanah LaBehema): «new year» for animal tithes.

Aseret Yemei Teshuva—Ten Days of Repentance[edit]

The first ten days of Tishrei (from the beginning of Rosh Hashana until the end of Yom Kippur) are known as the Ten Days of Repentance (עשרת ימי תשובה, Aseret Yemei Teshuva). During this time, in anticipation of Yom Kippur, it is «exceedingly appropriate»^[28] for Jews to practice teshuvah (literally «return»), an examination of one’s deeds and repentance for sins one has committed against other people and God. This repentance can take the form of additional supplications, confessing one’s deeds before God, fasting, self-reflection, and an increase of involvement with, or donations to, charity.

Tzom Gedalia—Fast of Gedalia[edit]

• Tzom Gedalia: 3 Tishrei

The Fast of Gedalia (צום גדליה) is a minor Jewish fast day. It commemorates the assassination of the governor of Judah, Gedalia, which ended any level of Jewish rule following the destruction of the First Temple.

The assassination apparently occurred on Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei),^[29] but the fast is postponed to 3 Tishrei in respect for the holiday. It is further postponed to 4 Tishrei if 3 Tishrei is Shabbat.

As on all minor fast days, fasting from dawn to dusk is required, but other laws of mourning are not normally observed. A Torah reading is included in both the Shacharit and Mincha prayers, and a Haftarah is also included at Mincha. There are also a number of additions to the liturgy of both services.^[30]

Yom Kippur—Day of Atonement[edit]

• Erev Yom Kippur: 9 Tishrei
• Yom Kippur: 10 Tishrei (begins at sunset)

Yom Kippur (יום כיפור) is the holiest day of the year for Jews.^{[Note 13]} Its central theme is atonement and reconciliation. This is accomplished through prayer and complete fasting—including abstinence from all food and drink (including water)—by all healthy adults.^{[Note 14]} Bathing, wearing of perfume or cologne, wearing of leather shoes, and sexual relations are some of the other prohibitions on Yom Kippur—all them designed to ensure one’s attention is completely and absolutely focused on the quest for atonement with God. Yom Kippur is also unique among holidays as having work-related restrictions identical to those of Shabbat. The fast and other prohibitions commence on 10 Tishrei at sunset—sunset being the beginning of the day in Jewish tradition.

A traditional prayer in Aramaic called Kol Nidre («All Vows») is traditionally recited just before sunset. Although often regarded as the start of the Yom Kippur evening service—to such a degree that Erev Yom Kippur («Yom Kippur Evening») is often called «Kol Nidre» (also spelled «Kol Nidrei»)—it is technically a separate tradition. This is especially so because, being recited before sunset, it is actually recited on 9 Tishrei, which is the day before Yom Kippur; it is not recited on Yom Kippur itself (on 10 Tishrei, which begins after the sun sets).

The words of Kol Nidre differ slightly between Ashkenazic and Sephardic traditions. In both, the supplicant prays to be released from all personal vows made to God during the year, so that any unfulfilled promises made to God will be annulled and, thus, forgiven. In Ashkenazi tradition, the reference is to the coming year; in Sephardic tradition, the reference is to the year just ended. Only vows between the supplicant and God are relevant. Vows made between the supplicant and other people remain perfectly valid, since they are unaffected by the prayer.

A Tallit (four-cornered prayer shawl) is donned for evening and afternoon prayers–the only day of the year in which this is done. In traditional Ashkenazi communities, men wear the kittel throughout the day’s prayers. The prayers on Yom Kippur evening are lengthier than on any other night of the year. Once services reconvene in the morning, the services (in all traditions) are the longest of the year. In some traditional synagogues prayers run continuously from morning until nightfall, or nearly so. Two highlights of the morning prayers in traditional synagogues are the recitation of Yizkor, the prayer of remembrance, and of liturgical poems (piyyutim) describing the temple service of Yom Kippur.

Two other highlights happen late in the day. During the Minchah prayer, the haftarah reading features the entire Book of Jonah. Finally, the day concludes with Ne’ilah, a special service recited only on the day of Yom Kippur. Ne’ilah deals with the closing of the holiday, and contains a fervent final plea to God for forgiveness just before the conclusion of the fast. Yom Kippur comes to an end with the blowing of the shofar, which marks the conclusion of the fast. It is always observed as a one-day holiday, both inside and outside the boundaries of the Land of Israel.

Yom Kippur is considered, along with 15th of Av, as the happiest days of the year (Talmud Bavli—Tractate Ta’anit).^[31]

Sukkot—Feast of Booths (or Tabernacles)[edit]

• Erev Sukkot: 14 Tishrei
• Sukkot: 15–21 Tishrei (22 outside Israel)
• The first day of Sukkot is (outside Israel, first two days are) full yom tov, while the remainder of Sukkot has the status of Chol Hamoed, «intermediate days».

Sukkot (סוכות or סֻכּוֹת, sukkōt) or Succoth is a seven-day festival, also known as the Feast of Booths, the Feast of Tabernacles, or just Tabernacles. It is one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals (shalosh regalim) mentioned in the Bible. Sukkot commemorates the years that the Jews spent in the desert on their way to the Promised Land, and celebrates the way in which God protected them under difficult desert conditions. The word sukkot is the plural of the Hebrew word sukkah, meaning booth. Jews are commanded to «dwell» in booths during the holiday.^[32] This generally means taking meals, but some sleep in the sukkah as well, particularly in Israel. There are specific rules for constructing a sukkah.

Along with dwelling in a sukkah, the principal ritual unique to this holiday is use of the Four Species: lulav (palm), hadass (myrtle), aravah (willow) and etrog (citron).^[33] On each day of the holiday other than Shabbat, these are waved in association with the recitation of Hallel in the synagogue, then walked in a procession around the synagogue called the Hoshanot.

The seventh day of the Sukkot is called Hoshanah Rabbah, the «Great Hoshanah» (singular of Hoshanot and the source of the English word hosanna). The climax of the day’s prayers includes seven processions of Hoshanot around the synagogue. This tradition mimics practices from the Temple in Jerusalem. Many aspects of the day’s customs also resemble those of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Hoshanah Rabbah is traditionally taken to be the day of the «delivery» of the final judgment of Yom Kippur, and offers a last opportunity for pleas of repentance before the holiday season closes.

Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah[edit]

• Shemini Atzeret: 22 Tishrei (combined with Simchat Torah in Israel)
• Simchat Torah outside Israel: 23 Tishrei

The holiday of Shemini Atzeret (שמיני עצרת) immediately follows the conclusion of the holiday of Sukkot. The Hebrew word shemini means «eighth”, and refers to its position on «the eighth day» of Sukkot, actually a seven-day holiday. This name reflects the fact that while in many respects Shemini Atzeret is a separate holiday in its own right, in certain respects its celebration is linked to that of Sukkot. Outside Israel, meals are still taken in the Sukkah on this day.

The main notable custom of this holiday is the celebration of Simchat Torah (שמחת תורה), meaning «rejoicing with the Torah». This name originally referred to a special «ceremony»: the last weekly Torah portion is read from Deuteronomy, completing the annual cycle, and is followed immediately by the reading of the first chapter of Genesis, beginning the new annual cycle. Services are especially joyous, and all attendees, young and old, are involved.

This ceremony so dominates the holiday that in Israel, where the holiday is one day long, the whole holiday is often referred to as Simchat Torah. Outside Israel, the holiday is two days long; the name Shemini Atzeret is used for the first day, while the second is normally called Simchat Torah.

Hanukkah—Festival of Lights[edit]

• Erev Hanukkah: 24 Kislev
• Hanukkah: 25 Kislev – 2 or 3 Tevet

The story of Hanukkah (חנוכה) is preserved in the books of the First and Second Maccabees. These books are not part of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), they are apocryphal books instead. The miracle of the one-day supply of olive oil miraculously lasting eight days is first described in the Talmud (Shabbat 21b), written about 600 years after the events described in the books of Maccabees.^[34]

Hanukkah marks the defeat of Seleucid Empire forces that had tried to prevent the people of Israel from practicing Judaism. Judah Maccabee and his brothers destroyed overwhelming forces, and rededicated the Temple in Jerusalem. The eight-day festival is marked by the kindling of lights—one on the first night, two on the second, and so on—using a special candle holder called a Hanukkiah, or a Hanukkah menorah.

Religiously, Hanukkah is a minor holiday. Except on Shabbat, restrictions on work do not apply.^{[Note 15]} Aside from the kindling of lights, formal religious observance is restricted to changes in liturgy. Hanukkah celebration tends to be informal and based on custom rather than law. Three widely practiced customs include:

• Consumption of foods prepared in oil, such as potato pancakes or sufganiyot, commemorating the miracle of oil
• Playing the game of dreidel (called a sevivon in Hebrew), symbolizing Jews’ disguising of illegal Torah study sessions as gambling meetings during the period leading to the Maccabees’ revolt^{[Note 16]}
• Giving children money, especially coins, called Hanukkah gelt. However, the custom of giving presents is of far more recent, North American, origin, and is connected to the gift economy prevalent around North American Christmas celebrations.^{[Note 17]}

Tenth of Tevet[edit]

• Asarah B’Tevet: 10 Tevet

The Tenth of Tevet (עשרה בטבת, Asarah B’Tevet) is a minor fast day, marking the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem as outlined in 2 Kings 25:1

And it came to pass in the ninth year of his reign, in the tenth month, in the tenth day of the month, that Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came, he and all his army, against Jerusalem, and encamped against it; and they built forts against it round about.

This fast’s commemoration also includes other events occurring on 8, 9 and 10 Tevet.

This fast is observed like other minor fasts (see Tzom Gedalia, above). This is the only minor fast that can fall on a Friday under the current fixed Jewish calendar.

Tu Bishvat—New Year of the Trees[edit]

• Tu Bishvat: 15 Shevat

Tu Bishvat (ט»ו בשבט) (lit., «fifteenth of Shevat”, as ט״ו is the number «15» in Hebrew letters), is the new year for trees. It is also known as חג האילנות (Ḥag ha-Ilanot, Festival of Trees), or ראש השנה לאילנות (Rosh ha-Shanah la-Ilanot, New Year for Trees). According to the Mishnah, it marks the day from which fruit tithes are counted each year. Starting on this date, the biblical prohibition on eating the first three years of fruit (orlah) and the requirement to bring the fourth year fruit (neta revai) to the Temple in Jerusalem were counted.^[35]

During the 17th century, Rabbi Yitzchak Luria of Safed and his disciples created a short seder, called Hemdat ha‑Yamim, reminiscent of the seder that Jews observe on Passover, that explores the holiday’s Kabbalistic themes.^[36] This Tu Bishvat seder has witnessed a revival in recent years. More generally, Tu Bishvat is celebrated in modern times by eating various fruits and nuts associated with the Land of Israel.

Traditionally, trees are planted on this day.^[37] Many children collect funds leading up to this day to plant trees in Israel. Trees are usually planted locally as well.

Purim—Festival of Lots[edit]

• Fast of Esther: normally 13 Adar
• Purim: 14 Adar
• Shushan Purim: 15 Adar
• In leap years on the Hebrew calendar, the above dates are observed in the Second Adar (Adar Sheni). The 14th and 15th of First Adar (Adar Rishon) are known as Purim Katan

Purim Katan[edit]

Purim Katan (פורים קטן) (lit., «small Purim») is observed on the 14th and 15th of First Adar in leap years. These days are marked by a small increase in festivity, including a prohibition on fasting, and slight changes in the liturgy.

Ta’anit Esther–Fast of Esther[edit]

Ta’anit Esther (תענית אסתר), or «Fast of Esther», is named in honor of the fast of Esther and her court as Esther prepared to approach the king unbidden to invite him and Haman to a banquet.^[38] It commemorates that fast, as well as one alluded to later in the Book of Esther,^[39] undertaken as the Jews prepared to battle their enemies.

This fast is observed like other minor fasts (see Tzom Gedalia, above). While normally observed on 13 Adar, the eve of Purim, this fast is advanced to Thursday, 11 Adar, when 13 Adar falls on Shabbat.

Purim and Shushan Purim[edit]

Purim (פורים) commemorates the events that took place in the Book of Esther. The principal celebrations or commemorations include:^[40]

• The reading of the Megillah. Traditionally, this is read from a scroll twice during Purim–once in the evening and again in the morning. Ashkenazim have a custom of making disparaging noises at every mention of Haman’s name during the reading.
• The giving of Mishloakh Manot, gifts of food and drink to friends and neighbors.
• The giving of Matanot La’evyonim, gifts to the poor and the needy.
• The Purim meal (Se’udat Purim or Purim Se’udah). This meal is traditionally accompanied by consumption of alcohol, often heavy,^[41] although Jewish sages have warned about the need to adhere to all religious laws even in a drunken state.^{[Note 18]}

Several customs have evolved from these principal commemorations. One widespread custom to act out the story of Purim. The Purim spiel, or Purim play, has its origins in this, although the Purim spiel is not limited to that subject.^[42] Wearing of costumes and masks is also very common. These may be an outgrowth of Purim plays, but there are several theories as to the origin of the custom, most related in some way to the «hidden» nature of the miracles of Purim.^{[Note 19]}

Purim carnivals of various types have also become customary. In Israel there are festive parades, known as Ad-D’lo-Yada,^[43] in the town’s main street. The largest and most renowned is in Holon.^[44]

Most Jews celebrate Purim on 14 Adar, the day of celebration after the Jews defeated their enemies. Because Jews in the capital city of Shushan fought with their enemies an extra day, Purim is celebrated a day later there, on the day known as שושן פורים, Shushan Purim. This observance was expanded to «walled cities»,^[40] which are defined as cities «walled since the time of Joshua».^[45] In practice, there are no Jews living in Shushan (Shush, Iran), and Shushan Purim is observed fully only in Jerusalem. Cities like Safed and Tiberias also partially observe Shushan Purim. Elsewhere, Shushan Purim is marked only by a small increase in festivity, including a prohibition on fasting, and slight changes in the liturgy.

Pesach—Passover[edit]

• Erev Pesach and Fast of the Firstborn, («Ta’anit Bechorot»): 14 Nisan
• Pesach^{[Note 20]} (Passover): 15–21 Nisan (outside Israel 15–22 Nisan)
• The first day and last day of Passover (outside Israel, first two and last two days) are full yom tov, while the remainder of Passover has the status of Chol Hamoed, «intermediate days».
• Pesach Sheni (second Passover): 14 Iyar

Month of Nisan[edit]

As a rule, the month of Nisan is considered to be one of extra joy. Traditionally, throughout the entire month, Tahanun is omitted from the prayer service, many public mourning practices (such as delivering a eulogy at a funeral) are eliminated, and voluntary fasting is prohibited.^[46] However, practices sometimes vary.^[47]

Eve of Passover and Fast of the Firstborn[edit]

The day before Passover (Erev Pesach, lit., «Passover eve») is significant for three reasons:

• It is the day that all of the involved preparations for Passover, especially elimination of leavened food, or chametz, must be completed. In particular, a formal search for remaining chametz is done during the evening of Erev Pesach, and all remaining chametz is finally destroyed, disposed of or nullified during the morning of Erev Pesach.^[48]
• It is the day observed as the Fast of the Firstborn (תענית בכורות). Jews who are firstborn^{[Note 21]} fast, in remembrance of the tenth plague, when God killed the Egyptian firstborn, while sparing the Jewish firstborn.^[49] This fast is overridden by a seudat mitzvah, a meal celebrating the fulfillment of a commandment; accordingly, it is almost universal for firstborn Jews to attend such a meal on this day^{[Note 22]} so as to obviate their need to fast.
• During the era of the Temple in Jerusalem, the Korban Pesach, or sacrifice of the Paschal Lamb, was carried out the afternoon of 14 Nisan in anticipation of its consumption on Passover night.^[48]

When Passover starts on Sunday, and the eve of Passover is therefore Shabbat, the above schedule is altered. See Eve of Passover on Shabbat for details.

Passover[edit]

Passover (פּסח) (Pesach), also known liturgically as חג המצות («Ḥag haMatzot», the «Festival of Unleavened Bread»), is one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals (shalosh regalim) mentioned in the Torah. Passover commemorates the Exodus, the liberation of the Israelite slaves from Egypt.^[50][51] No chametz (leavened food) is eaten, or even owned, during the week of Passover, in commemoration of the biblical narrative in which the Israelites left Egypt so quickly that their bread did not have enough time to rise.^[52] Observant Jews go to great lengths to remove all chametz from their homes and offices in the run-up to Passover.^[53]

Along with the avoidance of chametz, the principal ritual unique to this holiday is the seder. The seder, meaning «order», is an ordered ritual meal eaten on the first night of Passover, and outside Israel also on the second night. This meal is known for its distinctive ritual foods—matzo (unleavened bread), maror (bitter herbs), and four cups of wine—as well as its prayer text/handbook/study guide, the Haggadah. Participation in a Passover seder is one of the most widely observed Jewish rituals, even among less affiliated or less observant Jews.^[54]

Passover lasts seven days in Israel,^[55] and eight days outside Israel. The holiday of the last day of Passover (outside Israel, last two days) commemorates the Splitting of the Red Sea; according to tradition this occurred on the seventh day of Passover.^[56]

Pesach Sheni[edit]

Pesach Sheni (פסח שני) («Second Passover») is a day prescribed in the Torah^[57] to allow those who did not bring the Paschal Lamb offering (Korban Pesach) a second chance to do so. Eligibility was limited to those who were distant from Jerusalem on Passover, or those who were ritually impure and ineligible to participate in a sacrificial offering. Today, some have the custom to eat matzo on Pesach Sheni, and some make a small change to the liturgy.

Sefirah—Counting of the Omer[edit]

• Sefirat HaOmer (Counting of the Omer): 16 Nisan – 5 Sivan^{[Note 23]}

Sefirah (lit. «Counting»; more fully, Sefirat HaOmer, «Counting of the Omer») (ספירת העומר), is the 49-day period between the biblical pilgrimage festivals of Passover and Shavuot. The Torah states^[58] that this period is to be counted, both in days and in weeks. The first day of this period^{[Note 23]} is the day of the first grain offering of the new year’s crop, an omer of barley. The day following the 49th day of the period is the festival of Shavuot; the Torah specifies a grain offering of wheat on that day.^[58]

Symbolically, this period has come to represent the spiritual development of the Israelites from slaves in the polytheistic society of Ancient Egypt to free, monotheistic people worthy of the revelation of the Torah, traditionally said to have occurred on Shavuot. Spiritual development remains a key rabbinic teaching of this period.^[59]

Sefirah has long been observed as a period of semi-mourning. The customary explanation^[60] cites a plague that killed 24,000 students of Rabbi Akiva (BT Yevamot 62b).^{[Note 24]} In broad terms, the mourning practices observed include limiting actual celebrations (such as weddings), not listening to music, not wearing new clothing, and not shaving or taking a haircut.^[60] There is a wide variety of practice as to the specifics of this observance. See Counting of the Omer (Semi-mourning).

Lag Ba’Omer[edit]

• Lag Ba’Omer: 18 Iyar

Lag Ba’Omer (לַ״ג בָּעוֹמֶר) is the 33rd day in the Omer count (לַ״ג is the number 33 in Hebrew). By Ashkenazi practice, the semi-mourning observed during the period of Sefirah (see above) is lifted on Lag Ba’Omer, while Sefardi practice is to lift it at the end of Lag Ba’Omer.^[60][61] Minor liturgical changes are made on Lag Ba’omer; because mourning practices are suspended, weddings are often conducted on this day.

Lag Ba’Omer is identified as the Yom Hillula (yahrzeit) of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, one of the leading Tannaim (teachers quoted in the Mishna) and ascribed author of the core text of Kabbalah, the Zohar. Customary celebrations include bonfires, picnics, and bow and arrow play by children.^[62] Boys sometimes receive their first haircuts on Lag Ba’Omer,^[63] while Hasidic rebbes hold tishes in honor of the day.

In Israel, Lag Ba’Omer is associated with the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire. In Zionist thought, the plague that decimated Rabbi Akiva’s 24,000 disciples is explained as a veiled reference to the revolt; the 33rd day representing the end of the plague is explained as the day of Bar Kokhba’s victory. The traditional bonfires and bow-and-arrow play were thus reinterpreted as celebrations of military victory.^[62] In this vein, the order originally creating the Israel Defense Forces was issued on Lag Ba’Omer 1948, 13 days after Israel declared independence.^[64]

Shavuot—Feast of Weeks—Yom HaBikurim[edit]

• Erev Shavuot: 5 Sivan
• Shavuot: 6 (and outside Israel: 7) Sivan

Shavuot (שבועות), the Feast of Weeks, is one of the three pilgrimage festivals (Shalosh regalim) ordained in the Torah. Different from other biblical holidays, the date for Shavuot is not explicitly fixed in the Torah. Instead, it is observed on the day following the 49th and final day in the counting of the Omer.^[58] In the current era of the fixed Jewish calendar, this puts the date of Shavuot as 6 Sivan. In Israel and in Reform Judaism, it is a one-day holiday; elsewhere, it is a two-day holiday extending through 7 Sivan.^{[Note 23]}

According to Rabbinic tradition, codified in the Talmud at Shabbat 87b, the Ten Commandments were given on this day. In the era of the Temple, there were certain specific offerings mandated for Shavuot, and Shavuot was the first day for bringing of Bikkurim to the Temple. Other than those, there are no explicit mitzvot unique to Shavuot given in the Torah (parallel to matzo on Passover or Sukkah on Sukkot).

Nevertheless, there are a number of widespread customs observed on Shavuot. During this holiday the Torah portion containing the Ten Commandments is read in the synagogue, and the biblical Book of Ruth is read as well. It is traditional to eat dairy meals during Shavuot. In observant circles, all night Torah study is common on the first night of Shavuot, while in Reform Judaism, Shavuot is the customary date for Confirmation ceremonies.

Mourning for Jerusalem: Seventeenth of Tammuz and Tisha B’Av[edit]

The three-week period starting on 17 Tammuz and concluding after Tisha B’Av has traditionally been observed as a period of mourning for the destruction of Jerusalem and the Holy Temple there.

Fast of the Seventeenth of Tammuz[edit]

• Shiva Asar B’Tammuz: 17 Tammuz

The Seventeenth of Tamuz (שבעה עשר בתמוז, Shiva Asar B’Tamuz) traditionally marks the first breach in the walls of the Jerusalem during the Roman conquest in 70 CE, at the end of the Second Temple period.^{[Note 25]} According to tradition, this day has had negative connotations since Moses broke the first set of tablets on this day.^[65] The Mishnah cites five negative events that happened on 17 Tammuz.^[66]

This fast is observed like other minor fasts (see Tzom Gedalia, above). When this fast falls out on Shabbat, its observance is postponed until Sunday.

The Three Weeks and the Nine Days[edit]

• The Three Weeks: 17 Tammuz – 9 Av
• The Nine Days: 1–9 Av
• The Week of Tisha B’Av (beginning at the conclusion of Shabbat preceding Tisha B’Av)

The period between the fasts of 17 Tammuz and 9 Av, known as the «Three Weeks» (Hebrew: בין המצרים, «between the straits»^[67]), features a steadily increasing level of mourning practices as Tisha B’Av approaches. Ashkenazi Jews refrain from conducting weddings and other joyful events throughout the period unless the date is established by Jewish law (as for a bris or pidyon haben). They do not cut their hair during this period.^[68] Starting on the first of Av and throughout the nine days between the 1st and 9th days of Av, Ashkenazim traditionally refrain from eating meat and drinking wine, except on Shabbat or at a Seudat Mitzvah (a Mitzvah meal, such as for a bris or siyum).^[68] They also refrain from bathing for pleasure.^[68] Sefardic practice varies some from this; the less severe restrictions usually begin on 1 Av, while the more severe restrictions apply during the week of Tisha B’Av itself.^[68]

Subject to the variations described above, Orthodox Judaism continues to maintain the traditional prohibitions. In Conservative Judaism, the Rabbinical Assembly’s Committee on Jewish Law and Standards has issued several responsa (legal rulings) which hold that the prohibitions against weddings in this timeframe are deeply held traditions, but should not be construed as binding law. Thus, Conservative Jewish practice would allow weddings during this time, except on the 17th of Tammuz and 9th of Av themselves.^{[Note 26]} Rabbis within Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism hold that halakha (Jewish law) is no longer binding and follow their individual consciences on such matters. Nevertheless, the rabbinical manual of the Reform movement encourages Reform rabbis not to conduct weddings on Tisha B’Av itself «out of historical consciousness and respect» for the Jewish community.^[69]

Tisha B’Av—Ninth of Av[edit]

• Tisha B’Av : 9 Av

Tisha B’Av (תשעה באב) is a major fast day and day of mourning. A Midrashic tradition states that the spies’ negative report concerning the Land of Israel was delivered on Tisha B’Av. Consequently, the day became auspicious for negative events in Jewish history. Most notably, both the First Temple, originally built by King Solomon, and the Second Temple of Roman times were destroyed on Tisha B’Av.^[66] Other calamities throughout Jewish history are said to have taken place on Tisha B’Av, including King Edward I’s edict compelling the Jews to leave England (1290) and the Jewish expulsion from Spain in 1492.

Tisha B’Av is a major fast. It is a 25-hour fast, running from sundown to nightfall. As on Yom Kippur, not only are eating and drinking prohibited, but also bathing, anointing, marital relations and the wearing of leather shoes. Work is not prohibited, as on biblical holidays, but is discouraged. In the evening, the Book of Lamentations is read in the synagogue, while in the morning lengthy kinot, poems of elegy, are recited. From evening until noon mourning rituals resembling those of shiva are observed, including sitting on low stools or the floor; after noon those restrictions are somewhat lightened, in keeping with the tradition that Messiah will be born on Tisha B’Av.^[70]

While the fast ends at nightfall of 9-10 Av, the restrictions of the Three Weeks and Nine Days continue through noon on 10 Av because the Second Temple continued to burn through most of that day. When 9 Av falls on Shabbat, when fasting is prohibited, the fast is postponed until 10 Av. In that case, the restrictions of the Three Weeks and Nine Days end with the fast, except for the prohibition against eating meat and drinking wine, which extend until the morning of 10 Av.^[70]

Tu B’Av[edit]

• Tu B’Av: 15 Av

Tu B’av (ט״ו באב), lit. «15th of Av», is a day mentioned in the Talmud alongside Yom Kippur as «happiest of the year».^[31] It was a day celebrating the bringing of wood used for the Temple Service, as well as a day when marriages were arranged. Today, it is marked by a small change in liturgy. In modern Israel, the day has become somewhat of an analog to Valentine’s Day.

Other fasts[edit]

Several other fast days of ancient or medieval origin continue to be observed to some degree in modern times. Such continued observance is usually by Orthodox Jews only, and is not universal today even among Orthodox Jews.^{[Note 27]}

• Fasts for droughts and other public troubles. Much of the Talmudic tractate Ta’anit is devoted to the proclamation and execution of public fasts. The most detailed description refers to fasts in times of drought in the Land of Israel.^[71] Apparently these fasts included a Ne’ilah (closing) prayer, a prayer now reserved for recitation on Yom Kippur only.^[72]

While the specific fasts described in the Mishnah fell into disuse once Jews were exiled from the land of Israel, various Jewish communities have declared fasts over the years, using these as a model. Two examples include a fast among Polish Jews commemorating the massacre of Jews during the Khmelnytsky Uprising and one among Russian Jews during anti-Jewish pogroms of the 1880s.^[73][74]

Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the Chief Rabbinate of Israel has urged fasting in times of drought.^[75]

• Behab (בה»ב). The fasts of bet-hey-bet—Monday-Thursday-Monday—were established as a vehicle for atonement from possible excesses during the extended holiday periods of Passover and Sukkot. They are proclaimed on the first Shabbat of the month of Iyar following Passover, and Marcheshvan following Sukkot. Based on the model of Mishnah Ta’anit, they are then observed on the Monday, Thursday and Monday following that Shabbat.
• Yom Kippur Katan («little Yom Kippur»). These fasts originated in the sixteenth-century Kabbalistic community of Safed. They are conceptually linked to the sin-offerings that were brought to the Temple in Jerusalem on each Rosh Chodesh.^[76] These fasts are observed on the day before Rosh Chodesh in most months.^[77]

Israeli/Jewish national holidays and days of remembrance[edit]

As a general rule, the biblical Jewish holidays (Sabbath, Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Passover, Shavuot, Sukkot and Purim) are observed as public holidays in Israel. Chanukah is a school holiday, but businesses remain open. On Tisha B’Av, restaurants and places of entertainment are closed. Other Jewish holidays listed above are observed in varying ways and to varying degrees.

Between the creation of the State of Israel in 1948 and the aftermath of the Six-Day War, the Knesset, generally in consultation with the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, established four national holidays or days of remembrance:

• Yom HaShoah: Holocaust Remembrance Day
• Yom Hazikaron: Memorial Day
• Yom Ha’atzmaut: Israel Independence Day
• Yom Yerushalayim: Jerusalem Day

The status of these days as religious events is not uniform within the Jewish world. Non-Orthodox, Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox Jewish religious movements^{[Note 28]} accept these days as religious as well as national in nature.

As a rule, these four days are not accepted as religious observances by most Haredi Jews, including Hasidim. Some ḥaredim are opposed to the existence of the State of Israel altogether on religious grounds; others simply feel that there are not sufficient grounds under Jewish law to justify the establishment of new religious holidays. For details, see Haredim and Zionism.

Observance of these days in Jewish communities outside Israel is typically more muted than their observance in Israel. Events held in government and public venues within Israel are often held in Jewish communal settings (synagogues and community centers) abroad.

More recently, the Knesset established two additional holidays:

• Yom HaAliyah: Aliyah Day
• A day to commemorate the expulsion of Jews from Arab lands and Iran

Finally, the Israeli government also recognizes several ethnic Jewish observances with holiday status.

Yom HaShoah—Holocaust Remembrance Day[edit]

• Yom HaShoah: (nominally) 27 Nisan

Yom HaShoah (lit. «Holocaust Day») is a day of remembrance for victims of the Holocaust. Its full name is Yom Hazikaron LaShoah v’LiGevurah (lit. «Holocaust and Heroism Remembrance Day») (יום הזכרון לשואה ולגבורה), and reflects a desire to recognize martyrs who died in active resistance to the Nazis alongside those who died as passive victims. Its date, 27 Nisan, was chosen because it commemorates the Warsaw Ghetto uprising, the best known of the armed Jewish uprisings.^{[Note 29][Note 30]}

Places of public entertainment are closed throughout Israel in recognition of the day.^[78] Public commemoration of Yom HaShoah usually includes religious elements such as the recitation of Psalms, memorial prayers, and kaddish, and the lighting of memorial candles. In Israel, the most notable observances are the State memorial ceremony at Yad Vashem and the sirens marking off a two-minute silence at 10:00 am. Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox Jews generally participate in such public observances along with secular Jews and Jews who adhere to more liberal religious movements. Outside Israel, Jewish communities observe Yom HaShoah in addition to or instead of their countries’ Holocaust Memorial Days.^[78] Probably the most notable commemoration is the March of the Living, held at the site of Auschwitz-Birkenau, attended by Jews from all parts of the world.

Outside Orthodoxy, a liturgy for Yom HaShoah is beginning to develop. The Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist prayer books all include liturgical elements for Yom HaShoah, to be added to the regular weekday prayers. Conservative Judaism has written a scroll, called Megillat HaShoah, intended to become a definitive liturgical reading for Yom HaShoah.^[79][80] The Orthodox world–even the segment that participates publicly in Yom HaShoah–has been reluctant to write a liturgy for the day, preferring to compose Kinnot (prayers of lamentation) for recitation on Tisha B’Av.^{[79][Note 31]}

In order to ensure that public Yom HaShoah ceremonies in Israel do not violate Shabbat prohibitions, the date for Yom HaShoah varies^{[Note 32]} as follows:

• If 27 Nisan occurs on a Friday, the observance of Yom HaShoah is advanced to the previous day (Thursday, 26 Nisan).
• If 27 Nisan occurs on a Sunday, the observance of Yom HaShoah is delayed to the following day (Monday, 28 Nisan).

Yom Hazikaron—Memorial Day[edit]

• Yom Hazikaron: (nominally) 4 Iyar

Yom Hazikaron (lit. «Memorial Day») is a day of remembrance of the fallen of Israel’s wars. During the first years of Israel’s independence, this remembrance was observed on Yom Ha’atzmaut (Independence Day) itself. However, by 1951, the memorial observance was separated from the festive celebration of Independence Day and moved to its current date, the day before Yom Ha’atzmaut.^{[81][Note 33]} Since 2000, the scope of the memorial has expanded to include civilians slain by acts of hostile terrorism. Its full name is now יום הזכרון לחללי מערכות ישראל ולנפגעי פעולות האיבה («Day of Remembrance for the Fallen of the Battles of Israel and the Victims of Terror»).^[82]

Places of public entertainment are closed throughout Israel in recognition of the day.^[83] Many schools, businesses and other institutions conduct memorial services on this day, and it is customary to visit the graves of fallen soldiers and to recite memorial prayers there. The principal public observances are the evening opening ceremony at the Western Wall and the morning services of remembrance at military cemeteries throughout the country, each opened by the sounding of sirens. The public observances conclude with the service at the military cemetery on Mount Herzl that serves as the transition to Yom Ha’atzmaut.

Outside Israel, Yom HaZikaron observances are often folded into Yom Ha’atzmaut celebrations. Within Israel, Yom Hazikaron is always the day before Yom Ha’atzmaut, but that date moves to prevent violation of Sabbath prohibitions during the ceremonies of either day. See following section for details.

Yom Ha’atzmaut—Israel Independence Day[edit]

• Yom Ha’atzmaut: (nominally) 5 Iyar

Yom Ha’atzmaut (יום העצמאות) is Israel’s Independence Day. Observance of this day by Jews inside and outside Israel is widespread,^[84] and varies in tone from secular (military parades and barbecues) to religious (recitation of Hallel and new liturgies).

Although Israel’s independence was declared on a Friday, the Chief Rabbinate has long been mindful of the possibility of Yom Ha’atzmaut (and Yom Hazikaron) observances leading to violation of Sabbath prohibitions. To prevent such violations, the dates of Yom Hazikaron and Yom Ha’atzmaut vary^{[Note 32]} as follows:

• If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Sunday-Monday, the observances are delayed to Monday-Tuesday, 5–6 Iyar.
• If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Tuesday-Wednesday, the observances are not moved.
• If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Thursday-Friday, the observances are advanced to Wednesday-Thursday, 3–4 Iyar.
• If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Friday-Shabbat, the observances are advanced to Wednesday-Thursday, 2–3 Iyar.

Nearly all non-ḥaredi Jewish religious communities have incorporated changes or enhancements to the liturgy in honor of Yom Ha’atzmaut and suspend the mourning practices of the period of Sefirat Ha’Omer. (See Yom Ha’atzmaut—Religious Customs for details.) Within the Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox communities, these changes are not without controversy, and customs continue to evolve.^[85]

Ḥaredi religious observance of Yom Ha’atzmaut varies widely. A few ḥaredim (especially Sefardic Ḥaredim) celebrate the day in a reasonably similar way to the way non-ḥaredim do.^[86] Most ḥaredim simply treat the day indifferently; i.e., as a regular day.^[85] And finally others (notably Satmar Ḥasidim and Neturei Karta) mourn on the day because of their opposition to the enterprise of the State of Israel.^[87]

Yom Yerushalayim—Jerusalem Day[edit]

• Yom Yerushalayim: 28 Iyar

Jerusalem Day (יום ירושלים) marks the 1967 reunification of Jerusalem under Israeli control during the Six-Day War. This marked the first time in 19 years that the Temple Mount was accessible to Jews, and the first time since the destruction of the Second Temple 1897 years earlier that the Temple Mount was under Jewish political control.

As with Yom Ha’atzmaut, celebrations of Yom Yerushalayim range from completely secular (including hikes to Jerusalem and a large parade through downtown Jerusalem) to religious (recitation of Hallel and new liturgies). Although Haredim do not participate in the liturgical changes, they are somewhat more likely to celebrate Yom Yerushalayim than the other modern Israeli holidays because of the importance of the liberation of the Western Wall and the Old City of Jerusalem.^[88]

Outside Israel, observance of Yom Yerushalayim is widespread, especially in Orthodox circles. It has not gained as widespread acceptance as Yom Ha’atzmaut, especially among more politically liberal Jews, because of the continuing conflicts over the future of the city.^[89]

Yom Yerushalayim has not traditionally moved to avoid Shabbat desecration, although in 2012 the Chief Rabbinate began some efforts in that direction.^[90]

Yom HaAliyah—Aliyah Day[edit]

• Yom HaAliyah: 10 Nisan

Aliyah Day (יום העלייה) is an Israeli national holiday celebrated annually on the tenth of Nisan.^[91] The day was established to acknowledge Aliyah, immigration to the Jewish state, as a core value of the State of Israel, and honor the ongoing contributions of Olim (immigrants) to Israeli society.^[92]

Immigration to Israel is a recognized religious value of Judaism, sometimes referred to as the Gathering of Israel.^[93] The date chosen for Yom HaAliyah, 10 Nisan, has religious significance: it is the day on which Joshua and the Israelites crossed the Jordan River at Gilgal into the Promised Land. It was thus the first documented «mass Aliyah».^[94] The alternative date observed in the school system, 7 Heshvan, falls during the week of the Torah portion in which God instructs Abraham to leave his home and his family and go up to the Land of Israel.^[95]

At the present time, observance of this day appears to be secular in nature.^{[citation needed]}

Day to commemorate the expulsion of Jews from Arab lands and Iran[edit]

• Day to Mark the Departure and Expulsion of Jews from the Arab Countries and Iran: 30 November (on the Gregorian calendar)

The Knesset established this observance in 2014. The purpose of this observance is to recognize the collective trauma of Mizrahi Jews during the period around the establishment of the State of Israel. Many Mizrachi Jews felt that their own suffering was being ignored, both in comparison to the suffering of European Jewry during the Holocaust and in comparison to the Palestinian Nakba. The Gregorian-calendar date chosen is the day after the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was adopted, as that date marked the beginning of concentrated pressure and hostility against the community.^[96]

At the present time, observance of this day appears to be secular in nature.

Ethnic holidays[edit]

The Israeli government officially recognizes three traditional holidays of ethnic Jewish communities in Israel. These days are also observed by their respective communities outside Israel.

• Mimouna began as a holiday among Moroccan Jews, while similar celebrations also exist among Turkish Jews and Persian Jews.^[97] These festivals are observed on the day after Passover, when the eating of ordinary food («chametz») resumes. In Israel, the observance of Mimouna has spread widely in recent years; it has been estimated that up to two million Jews who live in Israel now participate in Mimouna celebrations.^[98]

On the evening concluding Passover,^{[Note 34]} the celebration centers on visiting the homes of friends and neighbors, Jewish and non-Jewish. A variety of traditional foods are served, and symbols which represent good luck and prosperity are prominently displayed. The next day, barbecues and picnics are among the most widespread activities of the celebration.^[99]

• The Seharane was celebrated by Kurdish Jews as a multi-day nature festival starting the day after Passover. Communities would leave their villages and camp out for several days, celebrating with eating and drinking, nature walks, singing and dancing.

Its observance was interrupted after the relocation of this community to Israel in the 1950s. In recent years it has been revived. But because of the already-widespread celebration of Mimouna in Israel, the celebration of the Seharane was moved to Chol HaMoed Sukkot.^[100]

• The Sigd began among the Beta Israel (Ethiopian) community as a variation of the observance of Yom Kippur. Currently that community now observes it in addition to Yom Kippur; its date is 29 Heshvan, 49 days after Yom Kippur. It shares some features of Yom Kippur, Shavuot, and other holidays.^[101]

The Sigd is modeled on a ceremony of fasting, study and prayer described in Nehemiah 8, when the Jews rededicated themselves to religious observance on return to Israel after the Babylonian exile.^[102] In Ethiopia, the community would gather on a mountaintop and pray for a return to Jerusalem. The modern Sigd is centered on a promenade overlooking the Old City of Jerusalem. The day’s observance ends with a celebratory break fast.^[103]

See also[edit]

• Chabad holidays
• Jewish greetings
• Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000–2050
• List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar
• List of Gregorian Jewish-related and Israeli holidays
• Religious festival
• Yom Tov Torah readings

Explanatory notes[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• Brofsky, David. Hilkhot Moadim: Understanding the Laws of the Festivals. Jerusalem: Koren Publishers, 2013.
• Greenberg, Irving. The Jewish Way: Living the Holidays. New York: Touchstone, 1988.
• Renberg, Dalia H. The Complete Family Guide to Jewish Holidays. New York: Adama, 1985.
• Strassfeld, Michael. The Jewish Holidays: A Guide and Commentary. New York: Harper & Row, 1985.

External links[edit]

• Jewish Holidays Online List of all Jewish holidays for the current year (or any given year)
• Jewish holiday calendars & Hebrew date converter. Hebcal home page. Interactive Jewish calendar with candle lighting times and Torah readings.
• Jewish Holidays Hebcal. Major and Minor holidays and fasts for 6 Jewish year
• Four-year calendar of major Jewish holidays; Summary Explanation of the Jewish Holidays. JewishColumbus
• Jewish Holidays. Upcoming Holidays, links to others; at Orthodox Union.
• JewishGen Jewish Festival Dates calculator of the dates of Jewish holidays
• Jewish Holidays: A Primer Patheos
• What are the main Jewish festivals? BBC

Jewish holidays, also known as Jewish festivals or Yamim Tovim (Hebrew: ימים טובים, lit. ‘Good Days’, or singular יום טוב Yom Tov, in transliterated Hebrew []),^[1] are holidays observed in Judaism and by Jews^{[Note 1]} throughout the Hebrew calendar. They include religious, cultural and national elements, derived from three sources: biblical mitzvot («commandments»), rabbinic mandates, and the history of Judaism and the State of Israel.

Jewish holidays occur on the same dates every year in the Hebrew calendar, but the dates vary in the Gregorian. This is because the Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar calendar (based on the cycles of both the sun and moon), whereas the Gregorian is a solar calendar.

General concepts[edit]

Groupings[edit]

Certain terms are used very commonly for groups of holidays.

• The Hebrew-language term Yom Tov (יום טוב), sometimes referred to as «festival day,» usually refers to the six biblically-mandated festival dates on which all activities prohibited on Shabbat are prohibited, except for some related to food preparation.^[2] These include the first and seventh days of Passover (the Feast of Unleavened Bread / the Feast of Matzot — Exodus 23:15, Deuteronomy 16:16), [first day of] Shavuot, both days of Rosh Hashanah, first day of Sukkot, and [first day of] Shemini Atzeret. By extension, outside the Land of Israel, the second-day holidays known under the rubric Yom tov sheni shel galuyot (literally, «Second Yom Tov of the Diaspora»)—including Simchat Torah—are also included in this grouping. Colloquially, Yom Kippur, a biblically-mandated date on which even food preparation is prohibited, is often included in this grouping. The tradition of keeping two days of Yom Tov in the diaspora has existed since roughly 300 BCE.
• The English-language term High Holy Days (or High Holidays) refers to Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur collectively. Its Hebrew analogue, Yamim Nora’im (ימים נוראים), «Days of Awe”, is more flexible: it can refer just to those holidays, or to the Ten Days of Repentance, or to the entire penitential period, starting as early as the beginning of Elul, and (more rarely) ending as late as Shemini Atzeret.
• The term Three Pilgrimage Festivals (שלוש רגלים, shalosh regalim) refers to Passover (the Feast of Unleavened Bread / Feast of Matzot), Shavuot and Sukkot. Within this grouping Sukkot normally includes Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah.
• Ma’agal Hashana (מעגל השנה; «year cycle»), a more general term, is often used — especially in educational settings ^[3][4][5] — to refer to the overall study of the Jewish calendar, outlining the month by month events, with mitzvot and minhagim, and philosophical material, that occur over the course of the year.

Terminology used to describe holidays[edit]

Certain terminology is used in referring to different categories of holidays, depending on their source and their nature:

Shabbat (שבת) (Ashkenazi pron. from Yiddish shabbos), or Sabbath, is referred to by that name exclusively. Similarly, Rosh Chodesh (ראש חודש) is referred to by that name exclusively.

• Yom tov (יום טוב) (Ashkenazi pron. from Yid. yontif) (lit., «good day»): See «Groupings» above.
• Moed (מועד) («festive season»), plural moadim (מועדים), refers to any of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals of Passover, Shavuot and Sukkot. When used in comparison to Yom Tov, it refers to Chol HaMoed, the intermediate days of Passover and Sukkot.
• Ḥag or chag (חג) («festival»), plural chagim (חגים), can be used whenever yom tov or moed is. It is also used to describe Hanukkah and Purim, as well as Yom Ha’atzmaut (Israeli Independence Day) and Yom Yerushalayim (Jerusalem Day).
• Ta’anit (תענית), or, less commonly, tzom (צום), refers to a fast. These terms are generally used to describe the rabbinic fasts, although tzom is used liturgically to refer to Yom Kippur as well.^[6]

«Work» on Sabbath and biblical holidays[edit]

The most notable common feature of Shabbat and the biblical festivals is the requirement to refrain from melacha on these days.^{[Note 2]} Melacha is most commonly translated as «work»; perhaps a better translation is «creative-constructive work». Strictly speaking, Melacha is defined in Jewish law (halacha) by 39 categories of labor that were used in constructing the Tabernacle while the Jews wandered in the desert. As understood traditionally and in Orthodox Judaism:

• On Shabbat and Yom Kippur all melacha is prohibited.
• On a Yom Tov (other than Yom Kippur) which falls on a weekday, not Shabbat, most melacha is prohibited. Some melacha related to preparation of food is permitted.^{[Note 3][Note 4]}
• On weekdays during Chol HaMoed, melacha is not prohibited per se. However, melacha should be limited to that required either to enhance the enjoyment of the remainder of the festival or to avoid great financial loss.
• On other days, there are no restrictions on melacha.^{[Note 5]}

In principle, Conservative Judaism understands the requirement to refrain from melacha in the same way as Orthodox Judaism. In practice, Conservative rabbis frequently rule on prohibitions around melacha differently from Orthodox authorities.^[9] Still, there are a number of Conservative/Masorti communities around the world where Sabbath and Festival observance fairly closely resembles Orthodox observance.^{[Note 6]}

However, many, if not most, lay members of Conservative congregations in North America do not consider themselves Sabbath-observant, even by Conservative standards.^[10] At the same time, adherents of Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism do not accept halacha, and therefore restrictions on melacha, as binding at all.^{[Note 7]} Jews fitting any of these descriptions refrain from melacha in practice only as they personally see fit.

Shabbat and holiday work restrictions are always put aside in cases of pikuach nefesh, which is saving a human life. At the most fundamental level, if there is any possibility whatsoever that action must be taken to save a life, Shabbat restrictions are set aside immediately, and without reservation.^{[Note 8]} Where the danger to life is present but less immediate, there is some preference to minimize violation of Shabbat work restrictions where possible. The laws in this area are complex.^[11]

Second day of biblical festivals[edit]

The Torah specifies a single date on the Jewish calendar for observance of holidays. Nevertheless, festivals of biblical origin other than Shabbat and Yom Kippur are observed for two days outside the land of Israel, and Rosh Hashanah is observed for two days even inside the land of Israel.

Dates for holidays on the Jewish calendar are expressed in the Torah as «day x of month y.» Accordingly, the beginning of month y needs to be determined before the proper date of the holiday on day x can be fixed. Months in the Jewish calendar are lunar, and originally were thought to have been proclaimed by the blowing of a shofar.^[12] Later, the Sanhedrin received testimony of witnesses saying they saw the new crescent moon.^{[Note 9]} Then the Sanhedrin would inform Jewish communities away from its meeting place that it had proclaimed a new moon. The practice of observing a second festival day stemmed from delays in disseminating that information.^[13]

• Rosh Hashanah. Because of holiday restrictions on travel, messengers could not even leave the seat of the Sanhedrin until the holiday was over. Inherently, there was no possible way for anyone living away from the seat of the Sanhedrin to receive news of the proclamation of the new month until messengers arrived after the fact. Accordingly, the practice emerged that Rosh Hashanah was observed on both possible days, as calculated from the previous month’s start, everywhere in the world.^{[14][Note 10]}
• Three Pilgrimage Festivals. Sukkot and Passover fall on the 15th day of their respective months. This gave messengers two weeks to inform communities about the proclamation of the new month. Normally, they would reach most communities within the land of Israel within that time, but they might fail to reach communities farther away (such as those in Babylonia or overseas). Consequently, the practice developed that these holidays be observed for one day within Israel, but for two days (both possible days as calculated from the previous month’s start) outside Israel. This practice is known as yom tov sheni shel galuyot, «second day of festivals in exile communities».^[15]

For Shavuot, calculated as the fiftieth day from Passover, the above issue did not pertain directly, as the «correct» date for Passover would be known by then. Nevertheless, the Talmud applies the same rule to Shavuot, and to the Seventh Day of Passover and Shemini Atzeret, for consistency.^[16]

Yom Kippur is not observed for two days anywhere because of the difficulty of maintaining a fast over two days.^{[Note 11]}

Shabbat is not observed based on a calendar date, but simply at intervals of seven days. Accordingly, there is never a doubt of the date of Shabbat, and it need never be observed for two days.^{[Note 12]}

Adherents of Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism generally do not observe the second day of festivals,^[17] although some do observe two days of Rosh Hashanah.^[18]

Holidays of biblical and rabbinic (Talmudic) origin[edit]

Theories concerning possible non-Jewish sources for biblical holidays are beyond the scope of this article. Please see individual holiday articles, particularly Shabbat (History).

Shabbat—The Sabbath[edit]

Jewish law (halacha) accords Shabbat (שבת) the status of a holiday, a day of rest celebrated on the seventh day of each week. Jewish law defines a day as ending at either sundown or nightfall, when the next day then begins. Thus,

• Shabbat begins just before sundown Friday night. Its start is marked by the lighting of Shabbat candles and the recitation of Kiddush over a cup of wine.
• Shabbat ends at nightfall Saturday night. Its conclusion is marked by the prayer known as Havdalah.

The fundamental rituals and observances of Shabbat include:

• Reading of the Weekly Torah portion
• Abbreviation of the Amidah in the three regular daily services to eliminate requests for everyday needs
• Addition of a musaf service to the daily prayer services
• Enjoyment of three meals, often elaborate or ritualized, through the course of the day
• Restraint from performing melacha (see above).

In many ways, halakha (Jewish law) sees Shabbat as the most important holy day in the Jewish calendar.

• It is the first holiday mentioned in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), and God was the first one to observe it (Genesis).
• The Torah reading on Shabbat has more sections of parshiot (Torah readings) than on Yom Kippur or any other Jewish holiday.
• The prescribed penalty in the Torah for a transgression of Shabbat prohibitions is death by stoning (Exodus 31), while for other holidays the penalty is (relatively) less severe.
• Observance of Shabbat is the benchmark used in halacha to determine whether an individual is a religiously observant, religiously reliable member of the community.

Rosh Chodesh—The New Month[edit]

Rosh Chodesh (ראש חודש) (lit., «head of the month») is a minor holiday or observance occurring on the first day of each month of the Jewish calendar, as well as the last day of the preceding month if it has thirty days.

• Rosh Chodesh observance during at least a portion of the period of the prophets could be fairly elaborate.^[19]
• Over time there have been varying levels of observance of a custom that women are excused from certain types of work.^[20]
• Fasting is normally prohibited on Rosh Chodesh.

Beyond the preceding, current observance is limited to changes in liturgy.

In the month of Tishrei, this observance is superseded by the observance of Rosh Hashanah, a major holiday.

Related observances:

• The date of the forthcoming Rosh Chodesh is announced in synagogue on the preceding Sabbath.
• There are special prayers said upon observing the waxing moon for the first time each month.

Rosh Hashanah—The Jewish New Year[edit]

Selichot[edit]

The month of Elul that precedes Rosh Hashanah is considered to be a propitious time for repentance.^[21] For this reason, additional penitential prayers called Selichot are added to the daily prayers, except on Shabbat. Sephardi Jews add these prayers each weekday during Elul. Ashkenazi Jews recite them from the last Sunday (or Saturday night) preceding Rosh Hashanah that allows at least four days of recitations.

Rosh Hashanah[edit]

• Erev Rosh Hashanah (eve of the first day): 29 Elul
• Rosh Hashanah: 1–2 Tishrei

According to oral tradition, Rosh Hashanah (ראש השנה) (lit., «Head of the Year») is the Day of Memorial or Remembrance (יום הזכרון, Yom HaZikaron),^[22] and the day of judgment (יום הדין, Yom HaDin).^[23] God appears in the role of King, remembering and judging each person individually according to his/her deeds, and making a decree for each person for the following year.^[24]

The holiday is characterized by one specific mitzvah: blowing the shofar.^[25] According to the Torah, this is the first day of the seventh month of the calendar year,^[25] and marks the beginning of a ten-day period leading up to Yom Kippur. According to one of two Talmudic opinions, the creation of the world was completed on Rosh Hashanah.^[26]

Morning prayer services are lengthy on Rosh Hashanah, and focus on the themes described above: majesty and judgment, remembrance, the birth of the world, and the blowing of the shofar. Ashkenazi Jews recite the brief Tashlikh prayer, a symbolic casting off of the previous year’s sins, during the afternoon of Rosh Hashanah.

The Bible specifies Rosh Hashanah as a one-day holiday,^[25] but it is traditionally celebrated for two days, even within the Land of Israel. (See Second day of biblical festivals, above.)

Four New Years[edit]

The Torah itself does not use any term like «New Year» in reference to Rosh Hashanah. The Mishnah in Rosh Hashanah^[27] specifies four different «New Year’s Days» for different purposes:

• 1 Tishrei (conventional «Rosh Hashanah»): «new year» for calculating calendar years, sabbatical-year (shmita) and jubilee cycles, and the age of trees for purposes of Jewish law; and for separating grain tithes.
• 15 Shevat (Tu Bishvat): «new year» for trees–i.e., their current agricultural cycle and related tithes.
• 1 Nisan: «New Year» for counting months and major festivals and for calculating the years of the reign of a Jewish king
  • In biblical times, the day following 29 Adar, Year 1 of the reign of ___, would be followed by 1 Nisan, Year 2 of the reign of ___.
  • In modern times, although the Jewish calendar year number changes on Rosh Hashanah, the months are still numbered from Nisan.
  • The three pilgrimage festivals are always reckoned as coming in the order Passover-Shavuot-Sukkot. This can have religious law consequences even in modern times.
• 1 Elul (Rosh Hashanah LaBehema): «new year» for animal tithes.

Aseret Yemei Teshuva—Ten Days of Repentance[edit]

The first ten days of Tishrei (from the beginning of Rosh Hashana until the end of Yom Kippur) are known as the Ten Days of Repentance (עשרת ימי תשובה, Aseret Yemei Teshuva). During this time, in anticipation of Yom Kippur, it is «exceedingly appropriate»^[28] for Jews to practice teshuvah (literally «return»), an examination of one’s deeds and repentance for sins one has committed against other people and God. This repentance can take the form of additional supplications, confessing one’s deeds before God, fasting, self-reflection, and an increase of involvement with, or donations to, charity.

Tzom Gedalia—Fast of Gedalia[edit]

• Tzom Gedalia: 3 Tishrei

The Fast of Gedalia (צום גדליה) is a minor Jewish fast day. It commemorates the assassination of the governor of Judah, Gedalia, which ended any level of Jewish rule following the destruction of the First Temple.

The assassination apparently occurred on Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei),^[29] but the fast is postponed to 3 Tishrei in respect for the holiday. It is further postponed to 4 Tishrei if 3 Tishrei is Shabbat.

As on all minor fast days, fasting from dawn to dusk is required, but other laws of mourning are not normally observed. A Torah reading is included in both the Shacharit and Mincha prayers, and a Haftarah is also included at Mincha. There are also a number of additions to the liturgy of both services.^[30]

Yom Kippur—Day of Atonement[edit]

• Erev Yom Kippur: 9 Tishrei
• Yom Kippur: 10 Tishrei (begins at sunset)

Yom Kippur (יום כיפור) is the holiest day of the year for Jews.^{[Note 13]} Its central theme is atonement and reconciliation. This is accomplished through prayer and complete fasting—including abstinence from all food and drink (including water)—by all healthy adults.^{[Note 14]} Bathing, wearing of perfume or cologne, wearing of leather shoes, and sexual relations are some of the other prohibitions on Yom Kippur—all them designed to ensure one’s attention is completely and absolutely focused on the quest for atonement with God. Yom Kippur is also unique among holidays as having work-related restrictions identical to those of Shabbat. The fast and other prohibitions commence on 10 Tishrei at sunset—sunset being the beginning of the day in Jewish tradition.

A traditional prayer in Aramaic called Kol Nidre («All Vows») is traditionally recited just before sunset. Although often regarded as the start of the Yom Kippur evening service—to such a degree that Erev Yom Kippur («Yom Kippur Evening») is often called «Kol Nidre» (also spelled «Kol Nidrei»)—it is technically a separate tradition. This is especially so because, being recited before sunset, it is actually recited on 9 Tishrei, which is the day before Yom Kippur; it is not recited on Yom Kippur itself (on 10 Tishrei, which begins after the sun sets).

The words of Kol Nidre differ slightly between Ashkenazic and Sephardic traditions. In both, the supplicant prays to be released from all personal vows made to God during the year, so that any unfulfilled promises made to God will be annulled and, thus, forgiven. In Ashkenazi tradition, the reference is to the coming year; in Sephardic tradition, the reference is to the year just ended. Only vows between the supplicant and God are relevant. Vows made between the supplicant and other people remain perfectly valid, since they are unaffected by the prayer.

A Tallit (four-cornered prayer shawl) is donned for evening and afternoon prayers–the only day of the year in which this is done. In traditional Ashkenazi communities, men wear the kittel throughout the day’s prayers. The prayers on Yom Kippur evening are lengthier than on any other night of the year. Once services reconvene in the morning, the services (in all traditions) are the longest of the year. In some traditional synagogues prayers run continuously from morning until nightfall, or nearly so. Two highlights of the morning prayers in traditional synagogues are the recitation of Yizkor, the prayer of remembrance, and of liturgical poems (piyyutim) describing the temple service of Yom Kippur.

Two other highlights happen late in the day. During the Minchah prayer, the haftarah reading features the entire Book of Jonah. Finally, the day concludes with Ne’ilah, a special service recited only on the day of Yom Kippur. Ne’ilah deals with the closing of the holiday, and contains a fervent final plea to God for forgiveness just before the conclusion of the fast. Yom Kippur comes to an end with the blowing of the shofar, which marks the conclusion of the fast. It is always observed as a one-day holiday, both inside and outside the boundaries of the Land of Israel.

Yom Kippur is considered, along with 15th of Av, as the happiest days of the year (Talmud Bavli—Tractate Ta’anit).^[31]

Sukkot—Feast of Booths (or Tabernacles)[edit]

• Erev Sukkot: 14 Tishrei
• Sukkot: 15–21 Tishrei (22 outside Israel)
• The first day of Sukkot is (outside Israel, first two days are) full yom tov, while the remainder of Sukkot has the status of Chol Hamoed, «intermediate days».

Sukkot (סוכות or סֻכּוֹת, sukkōt) or Succoth is a seven-day festival, also known as the Feast of Booths, the Feast of Tabernacles, or just Tabernacles. It is one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals (shalosh regalim) mentioned in the Bible. Sukkot commemorates the years that the Jews spent in the desert on their way to the Promised Land, and celebrates the way in which God protected them under difficult desert conditions. The word sukkot is the plural of the Hebrew word sukkah, meaning booth. Jews are commanded to «dwell» in booths during the holiday.^[32] This generally means taking meals, but some sleep in the sukkah as well, particularly in Israel. There are specific rules for constructing a sukkah.

Along with dwelling in a sukkah, the principal ritual unique to this holiday is use of the Four Species: lulav (palm), hadass (myrtle), aravah (willow) and etrog (citron).^[33] On each day of the holiday other than Shabbat, these are waved in association with the recitation of Hallel in the synagogue, then walked in a procession around the synagogue called the Hoshanot.

The seventh day of the Sukkot is called Hoshanah Rabbah, the «Great Hoshanah» (singular of Hoshanot and the source of the English word hosanna). The climax of the day’s prayers includes seven processions of Hoshanot around the synagogue. This tradition mimics practices from the Temple in Jerusalem. Many aspects of the day’s customs also resemble those of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Hoshanah Rabbah is traditionally taken to be the day of the «delivery» of the final judgment of Yom Kippur, and offers a last opportunity for pleas of repentance before the holiday season closes.

Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah[edit]

• Shemini Atzeret: 22 Tishrei (combined with Simchat Torah in Israel)
• Simchat Torah outside Israel: 23 Tishrei

The holiday of Shemini Atzeret (שמיני עצרת) immediately follows the conclusion of the holiday of Sukkot. The Hebrew word shemini means «eighth”, and refers to its position on «the eighth day» of Sukkot, actually a seven-day holiday. This name reflects the fact that while in many respects Shemini Atzeret is a separate holiday in its own right, in certain respects its celebration is linked to that of Sukkot. Outside Israel, meals are still taken in the Sukkah on this day.

The main notable custom of this holiday is the celebration of Simchat Torah (שמחת תורה), meaning «rejoicing with the Torah». This name originally referred to a special «ceremony»: the last weekly Torah portion is read from Deuteronomy, completing the annual cycle, and is followed immediately by the reading of the first chapter of Genesis, beginning the new annual cycle. Services are especially joyous, and all attendees, young and old, are involved.

This ceremony so dominates the holiday that in Israel, where the holiday is one day long, the whole holiday is often referred to as Simchat Torah. Outside Israel, the holiday is two days long; the name Shemini Atzeret is used for the first day, while the second is normally called Simchat Torah.

Hanukkah—Festival of Lights[edit]

• Erev Hanukkah: 24 Kislev
• Hanukkah: 25 Kislev – 2 or 3 Tevet

The story of Hanukkah (חנוכה) is preserved in the books of the First and Second Maccabees. These books are not part of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), they are apocryphal books instead. The miracle of the one-day supply of olive oil miraculously lasting eight days is first described in the Talmud (Shabbat 21b), written about 600 years after the events described in the books of Maccabees.^[34]

Hanukkah marks the defeat of Seleucid Empire forces that had tried to prevent the people of Israel from practicing Judaism. Judah Maccabee and his brothers destroyed overwhelming forces, and rededicated the Temple in Jerusalem. The eight-day festival is marked by the kindling of lights—one on the first night, two on the second, and so on—using a special candle holder called a Hanukkiah, or a Hanukkah menorah.

Religiously, Hanukkah is a minor holiday. Except on Shabbat, restrictions on work do not apply.^{[Note 15]} Aside from the kindling of lights, formal religious observance is restricted to changes in liturgy. Hanukkah celebration tends to be informal and based on custom rather than law. Three widely practiced customs include:

• Consumption of foods prepared in oil, such as potato pancakes or sufganiyot, commemorating the miracle of oil
• Playing the game of dreidel (called a sevivon in Hebrew), symbolizing Jews’ disguising of illegal Torah study sessions as gambling meetings during the period leading to the Maccabees’ revolt^{[Note 16]}
• Giving children money, especially coins, called Hanukkah gelt. However, the custom of giving presents is of far more recent, North American, origin, and is connected to the gift economy prevalent around North American Christmas celebrations.^{[Note 17]}

Tenth of Tevet[edit]

• Asarah B’Tevet: 10 Tevet

The Tenth of Tevet (עשרה בטבת, Asarah B’Tevet) is a minor fast day, marking the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem as outlined in 2 Kings 25:1

And it came to pass in the ninth year of his reign, in the tenth month, in the tenth day of the month, that Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came, he and all his army, against Jerusalem, and encamped against it; and they built forts against it round about.

This fast’s commemoration also includes other events occurring on 8, 9 and 10 Tevet.

This fast is observed like other minor fasts (see Tzom Gedalia, above). This is the only minor fast that can fall on a Friday under the current fixed Jewish calendar.

Tu Bishvat—New Year of the Trees[edit]

• Tu Bishvat: 15 Shevat

Tu Bishvat (ט»ו בשבט) (lit., «fifteenth of Shevat”, as ט״ו is the number «15» in Hebrew letters), is the new year for trees. It is also known as חג האילנות (Ḥag ha-Ilanot, Festival of Trees), or ראש השנה לאילנות (Rosh ha-Shanah la-Ilanot, New Year for Trees). According to the Mishnah, it marks the day from which fruit tithes are counted each year. Starting on this date, the biblical prohibition on eating the first three years of fruit (orlah) and the requirement to bring the fourth year fruit (neta revai) to the Temple in Jerusalem were counted.^[35]

During the 17th century, Rabbi Yitzchak Luria of Safed and his disciples created a short seder, called Hemdat ha‑Yamim, reminiscent of the seder that Jews observe on Passover, that explores the holiday’s Kabbalistic themes.^[36] This Tu Bishvat seder has witnessed a revival in recent years. More generally, Tu Bishvat is celebrated in modern times by eating various fruits and nuts associated with the Land of Israel.

Traditionally, trees are planted on this day.^[37] Many children collect funds leading up to this day to plant trees in Israel. Trees are usually planted locally as well.

Purim—Festival of Lots[edit]

• Fast of Esther: normally 13 Adar
• Purim: 14 Adar
• Shushan Purim: 15 Adar
• In leap years on the Hebrew calendar, the above dates are observed in the Second Adar (Adar Sheni). The 14th and 15th of First Adar (Adar Rishon) are known as Purim Katan

Purim Katan[edit]

Purim Katan (פורים קטן) (lit., «small Purim») is observed on the 14th and 15th of First Adar in leap years. These days are marked by a small increase in festivity, including a prohibition on fasting, and slight changes in the liturgy.

Ta’anit Esther–Fast of Esther[edit]

Ta’anit Esther (תענית אסתר), or «Fast of Esther», is named in honor of the fast of Esther and her court as Esther prepared to approach the king unbidden to invite him and Haman to a banquet.^[38] It commemorates that fast, as well as one alluded to later in the Book of Esther,^[39] undertaken as the Jews prepared to battle their enemies.

This fast is observed like other minor fasts (see Tzom Gedalia, above). While normally observed on 13 Adar, the eve of Purim, this fast is advanced to Thursday, 11 Adar, when 13 Adar falls on Shabbat.

Purim and Shushan Purim[edit]

Purim (פורים) commemorates the events that took place in the Book of Esther. The principal celebrations or commemorations include:^[40]

• The reading of the Megillah. Traditionally, this is read from a scroll twice during Purim–once in the evening and again in the morning. Ashkenazim have a custom of making disparaging noises at every mention of Haman’s name during the reading.
• The giving of Mishloakh Manot, gifts of food and drink to friends and neighbors.
• The giving of Matanot La’evyonim, gifts to the poor and the needy.
• The Purim meal (Se’udat Purim or Purim Se’udah). This meal is traditionally accompanied by consumption of alcohol, often heavy,^[41] although Jewish sages have warned about the need to adhere to all religious laws even in a drunken state.^{[Note 18]}

Several customs have evolved from these principal commemorations. One widespread custom to act out the story of Purim. The Purim spiel, or Purim play, has its origins in this, although the Purim spiel is not limited to that subject.^[42] Wearing of costumes and masks is also very common. These may be an outgrowth of Purim plays, but there are several theories as to the origin of the custom, most related in some way to the «hidden» nature of the miracles of Purim.^{[Note 19]}

Purim carnivals of various types have also become customary. In Israel there are festive parades, known as Ad-D’lo-Yada,^[43] in the town’s main street. The largest and most renowned is in Holon.^[44]

Most Jews celebrate Purim on 14 Adar, the day of celebration after the Jews defeated their enemies. Because Jews in the capital city of Shushan fought with their enemies an extra day, Purim is celebrated a day later there, on the day known as שושן פורים, Shushan Purim. This observance was expanded to «walled cities»,^[40] which are defined as cities «walled since the time of Joshua».^[45] In practice, there are no Jews living in Shushan (Shush, Iran), and Shushan Purim is observed fully only in Jerusalem. Cities like Safed and Tiberias also partially observe Shushan Purim. Elsewhere, Shushan Purim is marked only by a small increase in festivity, including a prohibition on fasting, and slight changes in the liturgy.

Pesach—Passover[edit]

• Erev Pesach and Fast of the Firstborn, («Ta’anit Bechorot»): 14 Nisan
• Pesach^{[Note 20]} (Passover): 15–21 Nisan (outside Israel 15–22 Nisan)
• The first day and last day of Passover (outside Israel, first two and last two days) are full yom tov, while the remainder of Passover has the status of Chol Hamoed, «intermediate days».
• Pesach Sheni (second Passover): 14 Iyar

Month of Nisan[edit]

As a rule, the month of Nisan is considered to be one of extra joy. Traditionally, throughout the entire month, Tahanun is omitted from the prayer service, many public mourning practices (such as delivering a eulogy at a funeral) are eliminated, and voluntary fasting is prohibited.^[46] However, practices sometimes vary.^[47]

Eve of Passover and Fast of the Firstborn[edit]

The day before Passover (Erev Pesach, lit., «Passover eve») is significant for three reasons:

• It is the day that all of the involved preparations for Passover, especially elimination of leavened food, or chametz, must be completed. In particular, a formal search for remaining chametz is done during the evening of Erev Pesach, and all remaining chametz is finally destroyed, disposed of or nullified during the morning of Erev Pesach.^[48]
• It is the day observed as the Fast of the Firstborn (תענית בכורות). Jews who are firstborn^{[Note 21]} fast, in remembrance of the tenth plague, when God killed the Egyptian firstborn, while sparing the Jewish firstborn.^[49] This fast is overridden by a seudat mitzvah, a meal celebrating the fulfillment of a commandment; accordingly, it is almost universal for firstborn Jews to attend such a meal on this day^{[Note 22]} so as to obviate their need to fast.
• During the era of the Temple in Jerusalem, the Korban Pesach, or sacrifice of the Paschal Lamb, was carried out the afternoon of 14 Nisan in anticipation of its consumption on Passover night.^[48]

When Passover starts on Sunday, and the eve of Passover is therefore Shabbat, the above schedule is altered. See Eve of Passover on Shabbat for details.

Passover[edit]

Passover (פּסח) (Pesach), also known liturgically as חג המצות («Ḥag haMatzot», the «Festival of Unleavened Bread»), is one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals (shalosh regalim) mentioned in the Torah. Passover commemorates the Exodus, the liberation of the Israelite slaves from Egypt.^[50][51] No chametz (leavened food) is eaten, or even owned, during the week of Passover, in commemoration of the biblical narrative in which the Israelites left Egypt so quickly that their bread did not have enough time to rise.^[52] Observant Jews go to great lengths to remove all chametz from their homes and offices in the run-up to Passover.^[53]

Along with the avoidance of chametz, the principal ritual unique to this holiday is the seder. The seder, meaning «order», is an ordered ritual meal eaten on the first night of Passover, and outside Israel also on the second night. This meal is known for its distinctive ritual foods—matzo (unleavened bread), maror (bitter herbs), and four cups of wine—as well as its prayer text/handbook/study guide, the Haggadah. Participation in a Passover seder is one of the most widely observed Jewish rituals, even among less affiliated or less observant Jews.^[54]

Passover lasts seven days in Israel,^[55] and eight days outside Israel. The holiday of the last day of Passover (outside Israel, last two days) commemorates the Splitting of the Red Sea; according to tradition this occurred on the seventh day of Passover.^[56]

Pesach Sheni[edit]

Pesach Sheni (פסח שני) («Second Passover») is a day prescribed in the Torah^[57] to allow those who did not bring the Paschal Lamb offering (Korban Pesach) a second chance to do so. Eligibility was limited to those who were distant from Jerusalem on Passover, or those who were ritually impure and ineligible to participate in a sacrificial offering. Today, some have the custom to eat matzo on Pesach Sheni, and some make a small change to the liturgy.

Sefirah—Counting of the Omer[edit]

• Sefirat HaOmer (Counting of the Omer): 16 Nisan – 5 Sivan^{[Note 23]}

Sefirah (lit. «Counting»; more fully, Sefirat HaOmer, «Counting of the Omer») (ספירת העומר), is the 49-day period between the biblical pilgrimage festivals of Passover and Shavuot. The Torah states^[58] that this period is to be counted, both in days and in weeks. The first day of this period^{[Note 23]} is the day of the first grain offering of the new year’s crop, an omer of barley. The day following the 49th day of the period is the festival of Shavuot; the Torah specifies a grain offering of wheat on that day.^[58]

Symbolically, this period has come to represent the spiritual development of the Israelites from slaves in the polytheistic society of Ancient Egypt to free, monotheistic people worthy of the revelation of the Torah, traditionally said to have occurred on Shavuot. Spiritual development remains a key rabbinic teaching of this period.^[59]

Sefirah has long been observed as a period of semi-mourning. The customary explanation^[60] cites a plague that killed 24,000 students of Rabbi Akiva (BT Yevamot 62b).^{[Note 24]} In broad terms, the mourning practices observed include limiting actual celebrations (such as weddings), not listening to music, not wearing new clothing, and not shaving or taking a haircut.^[60] There is a wide variety of practice as to the specifics of this observance. See Counting of the Omer (Semi-mourning).

Lag Ba’Omer[edit]

• Lag Ba’Omer: 18 Iyar

Lag Ba’Omer (לַ״ג בָּעוֹמֶר) is the 33rd day in the Omer count (לַ״ג is the number 33 in Hebrew). By Ashkenazi practice, the semi-mourning observed during the period of Sefirah (see above) is lifted on Lag Ba’Omer, while Sefardi practice is to lift it at the end of Lag Ba’Omer.^[60][61] Minor liturgical changes are made on Lag Ba’omer; because mourning practices are suspended, weddings are often conducted on this day.

Lag Ba’Omer is identified as the Yom Hillula (yahrzeit) of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, one of the leading Tannaim (teachers quoted in the Mishna) and ascribed author of the core text of Kabbalah, the Zohar. Customary celebrations include bonfires, picnics, and bow and arrow play by children.^[62] Boys sometimes receive their first haircuts on Lag Ba’Omer,^[63] while Hasidic rebbes hold tishes in honor of the day.

In Israel, Lag Ba’Omer is associated with the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire. In Zionist thought, the plague that decimated Rabbi Akiva’s 24,000 disciples is explained as a veiled reference to the revolt; the 33rd day representing the end of the plague is explained as the day of Bar Kokhba’s victory. The traditional bonfires and bow-and-arrow play were thus reinterpreted as celebrations of military victory.^[62] In this vein, the order originally creating the Israel Defense Forces was issued on Lag Ba’Omer 1948, 13 days after Israel declared independence.^[64]

Shavuot—Feast of Weeks—Yom HaBikurim[edit]

• Erev Shavuot: 5 Sivan
• Shavuot: 6 (and outside Israel: 7) Sivan

Shavuot (שבועות), the Feast of Weeks, is one of the three pilgrimage festivals (Shalosh regalim) ordained in the Torah. Different from other biblical holidays, the date for Shavuot is not explicitly fixed in the Torah. Instead, it is observed on the day following the 49th and final day in the counting of the Omer.^[58] In the current era of the fixed Jewish calendar, this puts the date of Shavuot as 6 Sivan. In Israel and in Reform Judaism, it is a one-day holiday; elsewhere, it is a two-day holiday extending through 7 Sivan.^{[Note 23]}

According to Rabbinic tradition, codified in the Talmud at Shabbat 87b, the Ten Commandments were given on this day. In the era of the Temple, there were certain specific offerings mandated for Shavuot, and Shavuot was the first day for bringing of Bikkurim to the Temple. Other than those, there are no explicit mitzvot unique to Shavuot given in the Torah (parallel to matzo on Passover or Sukkah on Sukkot).

Nevertheless, there are a number of widespread customs observed on Shavuot. During this holiday the Torah portion containing the Ten Commandments is read in the synagogue, and the biblical Book of Ruth is read as well. It is traditional to eat dairy meals during Shavuot. In observant circles, all night Torah study is common on the first night of Shavuot, while in Reform Judaism, Shavuot is the customary date for Confirmation ceremonies.

Mourning for Jerusalem: Seventeenth of Tammuz and Tisha B’Av[edit]

The three-week period starting on 17 Tammuz and concluding after Tisha B’Av has traditionally been observed as a period of mourning for the destruction of Jerusalem and the Holy Temple there.

Fast of the Seventeenth of Tammuz[edit]

• Shiva Asar B’Tammuz: 17 Tammuz

The Seventeenth of Tamuz (שבעה עשר בתמוז, Shiva Asar B’Tamuz) traditionally marks the first breach in the walls of the Jerusalem during the Roman conquest in 70 CE, at the end of the Second Temple period.^{[Note 25]} According to tradition, this day has had negative connotations since Moses broke the first set of tablets on this day.^[65] The Mishnah cites five negative events that happened on 17 Tammuz.^[66]

This fast is observed like other minor fasts (see Tzom Gedalia, above). When this fast falls out on Shabbat, its observance is postponed until Sunday.

The Three Weeks and the Nine Days[edit]

• The Three Weeks: 17 Tammuz – 9 Av
• The Nine Days: 1–9 Av
• The Week of Tisha B’Av (beginning at the conclusion of Shabbat preceding Tisha B’Av)

The period between the fasts of 17 Tammuz and 9 Av, known as the «Three Weeks» (Hebrew: בין המצרים, «between the straits»^[67]), features a steadily increasing level of mourning practices as Tisha B’Av approaches. Ashkenazi Jews refrain from conducting weddings and other joyful events throughout the period unless the date is established by Jewish law (as for a bris or pidyon haben). They do not cut their hair during this period.^[68] Starting on the first of Av and throughout the nine days between the 1st and 9th days of Av, Ashkenazim traditionally refrain from eating meat and drinking wine, except on Shabbat or at a Seudat Mitzvah (a Mitzvah meal, such as for a bris or siyum).^[68] They also refrain from bathing for pleasure.^[68] Sefardic practice varies some from this; the less severe restrictions usually begin on 1 Av, while the more severe restrictions apply during the week of Tisha B’Av itself.^[68]

Subject to the variations described above, Orthodox Judaism continues to maintain the traditional prohibitions. In Conservative Judaism, the Rabbinical Assembly’s Committee on Jewish Law and Standards has issued several responsa (legal rulings) which hold that the prohibitions against weddings in this timeframe are deeply held traditions, but should not be construed as binding law. Thus, Conservative Jewish practice would allow weddings during this time, except on the 17th of Tammuz and 9th of Av themselves.^{[Note 26]} Rabbis within Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism hold that halakha (Jewish law) is no longer binding and follow their individual consciences on such matters. Nevertheless, the rabbinical manual of the Reform movement encourages Reform rabbis not to conduct weddings on Tisha B’Av itself «out of historical consciousness and respect» for the Jewish community.^[69]

Tisha B’Av—Ninth of Av[edit]

• Tisha B’Av : 9 Av

Tisha B’Av (תשעה באב) is a major fast day and day of mourning. A Midrashic tradition states that the spies’ negative report concerning the Land of Israel was delivered on Tisha B’Av. Consequently, the day became auspicious for negative events in Jewish history. Most notably, both the First Temple, originally built by King Solomon, and the Second Temple of Roman times were destroyed on Tisha B’Av.^[66] Other calamities throughout Jewish history are said to have taken place on Tisha B’Av, including King Edward I’s edict compelling the Jews to leave England (1290) and the Jewish expulsion from Spain in 1492.

Tisha B’Av is a major fast. It is a 25-hour fast, running from sundown to nightfall. As on Yom Kippur, not only are eating and drinking prohibited, but also bathing, anointing, marital relations and the wearing of leather shoes. Work is not prohibited, as on biblical holidays, but is discouraged. In the evening, the Book of Lamentations is read in the synagogue, while in the morning lengthy kinot, poems of elegy, are recited. From evening until noon mourning rituals resembling those of shiva are observed, including sitting on low stools or the floor; after noon those restrictions are somewhat lightened, in keeping with the tradition that Messiah will be born on Tisha B’Av.^[70]

While the fast ends at nightfall of 9-10 Av, the restrictions of the Three Weeks and Nine Days continue through noon on 10 Av because the Second Temple continued to burn through most of that day. When 9 Av falls on Shabbat, when fasting is prohibited, the fast is postponed until 10 Av. In that case, the restrictions of the Three Weeks and Nine Days end with the fast, except for the prohibition against eating meat and drinking wine, which extend until the morning of 10 Av.^[70]

Tu B’Av[edit]

• Tu B’Av: 15 Av

Tu B’av (ט״ו באב), lit. «15th of Av», is a day mentioned in the Talmud alongside Yom Kippur as «happiest of the year».^[31] It was a day celebrating the bringing of wood used for the Temple Service, as well as a day when marriages were arranged. Today, it is marked by a small change in liturgy. In modern Israel, the day has become somewhat of an analog to Valentine’s Day.

Other fasts[edit]

Several other fast days of ancient or medieval origin continue to be observed to some degree in modern times. Such continued observance is usually by Orthodox Jews only, and is not universal today even among Orthodox Jews.^{[Note 27]}

• Fasts for droughts and other public troubles. Much of the Talmudic tractate Ta’anit is devoted to the proclamation and execution of public fasts. The most detailed description refers to fasts in times of drought in the Land of Israel.^[71] Apparently these fasts included a Ne’ilah (closing) prayer, a prayer now reserved for recitation on Yom Kippur only.^[72]

While the specific fasts described in the Mishnah fell into disuse once Jews were exiled from the land of Israel, various Jewish communities have declared fasts over the years, using these as a model. Two examples include a fast among Polish Jews commemorating the massacre of Jews during the Khmelnytsky Uprising and one among Russian Jews during anti-Jewish pogroms of the 1880s.^[73][74]

Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the Chief Rabbinate of Israel has urged fasting in times of drought.^[75]

• Behab (בה»ב). The fasts of bet-hey-bet—Monday-Thursday-Monday—were established as a vehicle for atonement from possible excesses during the extended holiday periods of Passover and Sukkot. They are proclaimed on the first Shabbat of the month of Iyar following Passover, and Marcheshvan following Sukkot. Based on the model of Mishnah Ta’anit, they are then observed on the Monday, Thursday and Monday following that Shabbat.
• Yom Kippur Katan («little Yom Kippur»). These fasts originated in the sixteenth-century Kabbalistic community of Safed. They are conceptually linked to the sin-offerings that were brought to the Temple in Jerusalem on each Rosh Chodesh.^[76] These fasts are observed on the day before Rosh Chodesh in most months.^[77]

Israeli/Jewish national holidays and days of remembrance[edit]

As a general rule, the biblical Jewish holidays (Sabbath, Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Passover, Shavuot, Sukkot and Purim) are observed as public holidays in Israel. Chanukah is a school holiday, but businesses remain open. On Tisha B’Av, restaurants and places of entertainment are closed. Other Jewish holidays listed above are observed in varying ways and to varying degrees.

Between the creation of the State of Israel in 1948 and the aftermath of the Six-Day War, the Knesset, generally in consultation with the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, established four national holidays or days of remembrance:

• Yom HaShoah: Holocaust Remembrance Day
• Yom Hazikaron: Memorial Day
• Yom Ha’atzmaut: Israel Independence Day
• Yom Yerushalayim: Jerusalem Day

The status of these days as religious events is not uniform within the Jewish world. Non-Orthodox, Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox Jewish religious movements^{[Note 28]} accept these days as religious as well as national in nature.

As a rule, these four days are not accepted as religious observances by most Haredi Jews, including Hasidim. Some ḥaredim are opposed to the existence of the State of Israel altogether on religious grounds; others simply feel that there are not sufficient grounds under Jewish law to justify the establishment of new religious holidays. For details, see Haredim and Zionism.

Observance of these days in Jewish communities outside Israel is typically more muted than their observance in Israel. Events held in government and public venues within Israel are often held in Jewish communal settings (synagogues and community centers) abroad.

More recently, the Knesset established two additional holidays:

• Yom HaAliyah: Aliyah Day
• A day to commemorate the expulsion of Jews from Arab lands and Iran

Finally, the Israeli government also recognizes several ethnic Jewish observances with holiday status.

Yom HaShoah—Holocaust Remembrance Day[edit]

• Yom HaShoah: (nominally) 27 Nisan

Yom HaShoah (lit. «Holocaust Day») is a day of remembrance for victims of the Holocaust. Its full name is Yom Hazikaron LaShoah v’LiGevurah (lit. «Holocaust and Heroism Remembrance Day») (יום הזכרון לשואה ולגבורה), and reflects a desire to recognize martyrs who died in active resistance to the Nazis alongside those who died as passive victims. Its date, 27 Nisan, was chosen because it commemorates the Warsaw Ghetto uprising, the best known of the armed Jewish uprisings.^{[Note 29][Note 30]}

Places of public entertainment are closed throughout Israel in recognition of the day.^[78] Public commemoration of Yom HaShoah usually includes religious elements such as the recitation of Psalms, memorial prayers, and kaddish, and the lighting of memorial candles. In Israel, the most notable observances are the State memorial ceremony at Yad Vashem and the sirens marking off a two-minute silence at 10:00 am. Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox Jews generally participate in such public observances along with secular Jews and Jews who adhere to more liberal religious movements. Outside Israel, Jewish communities observe Yom HaShoah in addition to or instead of their countries’ Holocaust Memorial Days.^[78] Probably the most notable commemoration is the March of the Living, held at the site of Auschwitz-Birkenau, attended by Jews from all parts of the world.

Outside Orthodoxy, a liturgy for Yom HaShoah is beginning to develop. The Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist prayer books all include liturgical elements for Yom HaShoah, to be added to the regular weekday prayers. Conservative Judaism has written a scroll, called Megillat HaShoah, intended to become a definitive liturgical reading for Yom HaShoah.^[79][80] The Orthodox world–even the segment that participates publicly in Yom HaShoah–has been reluctant to write a liturgy for the day, preferring to compose Kinnot (prayers of lamentation) for recitation on Tisha B’Av.^{[79][Note 31]}

In order to ensure that public Yom HaShoah ceremonies in Israel do not violate Shabbat prohibitions, the date for Yom HaShoah varies^{[Note 32]} as follows:

• If 27 Nisan occurs on a Friday, the observance of Yom HaShoah is advanced to the previous day (Thursday, 26 Nisan).
• If 27 Nisan occurs on a Sunday, the observance of Yom HaShoah is delayed to the following day (Monday, 28 Nisan).

Yom Hazikaron—Memorial Day[edit]

• Yom Hazikaron: (nominally) 4 Iyar

Yom Hazikaron (lit. «Memorial Day») is a day of remembrance of the fallen of Israel’s wars. During the first years of Israel’s independence, this remembrance was observed on Yom Ha’atzmaut (Independence Day) itself. However, by 1951, the memorial observance was separated from the festive celebration of Independence Day and moved to its current date, the day before Yom Ha’atzmaut.^{[81][Note 33]} Since 2000, the scope of the memorial has expanded to include civilians slain by acts of hostile terrorism. Its full name is now יום הזכרון לחללי מערכות ישראל ולנפגעי פעולות האיבה («Day of Remembrance for the Fallen of the Battles of Israel and the Victims of Terror»).^[82]

Places of public entertainment are closed throughout Israel in recognition of the day.^[83] Many schools, businesses and other institutions conduct memorial services on this day, and it is customary to visit the graves of fallen soldiers and to recite memorial prayers there. The principal public observances are the evening opening ceremony at the Western Wall and the morning services of remembrance at military cemeteries throughout the country, each opened by the sounding of sirens. The public observances conclude with the service at the military cemetery on Mount Herzl that serves as the transition to Yom Ha’atzmaut.

Outside Israel, Yom HaZikaron observances are often folded into Yom Ha’atzmaut celebrations. Within Israel, Yom Hazikaron is always the day before Yom Ha’atzmaut, but that date moves to prevent violation of Sabbath prohibitions during the ceremonies of either day. See following section for details.

Yom Ha’atzmaut—Israel Independence Day[edit]

• Yom Ha’atzmaut: (nominally) 5 Iyar

Yom Ha’atzmaut (יום העצמאות) is Israel’s Independence Day. Observance of this day by Jews inside and outside Israel is widespread,^[84] and varies in tone from secular (military parades and barbecues) to religious (recitation of Hallel and new liturgies).

Although Israel’s independence was declared on a Friday, the Chief Rabbinate has long been mindful of the possibility of Yom Ha’atzmaut (and Yom Hazikaron) observances leading to violation of Sabbath prohibitions. To prevent such violations, the dates of Yom Hazikaron and Yom Ha’atzmaut vary^{[Note 32]} as follows:

• If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Sunday-Monday, the observances are delayed to Monday-Tuesday, 5–6 Iyar.
• If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Tuesday-Wednesday, the observances are not moved.
• If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Thursday-Friday, the observances are advanced to Wednesday-Thursday, 3–4 Iyar.
• If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Friday-Shabbat, the observances are advanced to Wednesday-Thursday, 2–3 Iyar.

Nearly all non-ḥaredi Jewish religious communities have incorporated changes or enhancements to the liturgy in honor of Yom Ha’atzmaut and suspend the mourning practices of the period of Sefirat Ha’Omer. (See Yom Ha’atzmaut—Religious Customs for details.) Within the Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox communities, these changes are not without controversy, and customs continue to evolve.^[85]

Ḥaredi religious observance of Yom Ha’atzmaut varies widely. A few ḥaredim (especially Sefardic Ḥaredim) celebrate the day in a reasonably similar way to the way non-ḥaredim do.^[86] Most ḥaredim simply treat the day indifferently; i.e., as a regular day.^[85] And finally others (notably Satmar Ḥasidim and Neturei Karta) mourn on the day because of their opposition to the enterprise of the State of Israel.^[87]

Yom Yerushalayim—Jerusalem Day[edit]

• Yom Yerushalayim: 28 Iyar

Jerusalem Day (יום ירושלים) marks the 1967 reunification of Jerusalem under Israeli control during the Six-Day War. This marked the first time in 19 years that the Temple Mount was accessible to Jews, and the first time since the destruction of the Second Temple 1897 years earlier that the Temple Mount was under Jewish political control.

As with Yom Ha’atzmaut, celebrations of Yom Yerushalayim range from completely secular (including hikes to Jerusalem and a large parade through downtown Jerusalem) to religious (recitation of Hallel and new liturgies). Although Haredim do not participate in the liturgical changes, they are somewhat more likely to celebrate Yom Yerushalayim than the other modern Israeli holidays because of the importance of the liberation of the Western Wall and the Old City of Jerusalem.^[88]

Outside Israel, observance of Yom Yerushalayim is widespread, especially in Orthodox circles. It has not gained as widespread acceptance as Yom Ha’atzmaut, especially among more politically liberal Jews, because of the continuing conflicts over the future of the city.^[89]

Yom Yerushalayim has not traditionally moved to avoid Shabbat desecration, although in 2012 the Chief Rabbinate began some efforts in that direction.^[90]

Yom HaAliyah—Aliyah Day[edit]

• Yom HaAliyah: 10 Nisan

Aliyah Day (יום העלייה) is an Israeli national holiday celebrated annually on the tenth of Nisan.^[91] The day was established to acknowledge Aliyah, immigration to the Jewish state, as a core value of the State of Israel, and honor the ongoing contributions of Olim (immigrants) to Israeli society.^[92]

Immigration to Israel is a recognized religious value of Judaism, sometimes referred to as the Gathering of Israel.^[93] The date chosen for Yom HaAliyah, 10 Nisan, has religious significance: it is the day on which Joshua and the Israelites crossed the Jordan River at Gilgal into the Promised Land. It was thus the first documented «mass Aliyah».^[94] The alternative date observed in the school system, 7 Heshvan, falls during the week of the Torah portion in which God instructs Abraham to leave his home and his family and go up to the Land of Israel.^[95]

At the present time, observance of this day appears to be secular in nature.^{[citation needed]}

Day to commemorate the expulsion of Jews from Arab lands and Iran[edit]

• Day to Mark the Departure and Expulsion of Jews from the Arab Countries and Iran: 30 November (on the Gregorian calendar)

The Knesset established this observance in 2014. The purpose of this observance is to recognize the collective trauma of Mizrahi Jews during the period around the establishment of the State of Israel. Many Mizrachi Jews felt that their own suffering was being ignored, both in comparison to the suffering of European Jewry during the Holocaust and in comparison to the Palestinian Nakba. The Gregorian-calendar date chosen is the day after the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was adopted, as that date marked the beginning of concentrated pressure and hostility against the community.^[96]

At the present time, observance of this day appears to be secular in nature.

Ethnic holidays[edit]

The Israeli government officially recognizes three traditional holidays of ethnic Jewish communities in Israel. These days are also observed by their respective communities outside Israel.

• Mimouna began as a holiday among Moroccan Jews, while similar celebrations also exist among Turkish Jews and Persian Jews.^[97] These festivals are observed on the day after Passover, when the eating of ordinary food («chametz») resumes. In Israel, the observance of Mimouna has spread widely in recent years; it has been estimated that up to two million Jews who live in Israel now participate in Mimouna celebrations.^[98]

On the evening concluding Passover,^{[Note 34]} the celebration centers on visiting the homes of friends and neighbors, Jewish and non-Jewish. A variety of traditional foods are served, and symbols which represent good luck and prosperity are prominently displayed. The next day, barbecues and picnics are among the most widespread activities of the celebration.^[99]

• The Seharane was celebrated by Kurdish Jews as a multi-day nature festival starting the day after Passover. Communities would leave their villages and camp out for several days, celebrating with eating and drinking, nature walks, singing and dancing.

Its observance was interrupted after the relocation of this community to Israel in the 1950s. In recent years it has been revived. But because of the already-widespread celebration of Mimouna in Israel, the celebration of the Seharane was moved to Chol HaMoed Sukkot.^[100]

• The Sigd began among the Beta Israel (Ethiopian) community as a variation of the observance of Yom Kippur. Currently that community now observes it in addition to Yom Kippur; its date is 29 Heshvan, 49 days after Yom Kippur. It shares some features of Yom Kippur, Shavuot, and other holidays.^[101]

The Sigd is modeled on a ceremony of fasting, study and prayer described in Nehemiah 8, when the Jews rededicated themselves to religious observance on return to Israel after the Babylonian exile.^[102] In Ethiopia, the community would gather on a mountaintop and pray for a return to Jerusalem. The modern Sigd is centered on a promenade overlooking the Old City of Jerusalem. The day’s observance ends with a celebratory break fast.^[103]

See also[edit]

• Chabad holidays
• Jewish greetings
• Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000–2050
• List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar
• List of Gregorian Jewish-related and Israeli holidays
• Religious festival
• Yom Tov Torah readings

Explanatory notes[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• Brofsky, David. Hilkhot Moadim: Understanding the Laws of the Festivals. Jerusalem: Koren Publishers, 2013.
• Greenberg, Irving. The Jewish Way: Living the Holidays. New York: Touchstone, 1988.
• Renberg, Dalia H. The Complete Family Guide to Jewish Holidays. New York: Adama, 1985.
• Strassfeld, Michael. The Jewish Holidays: A Guide and Commentary. New York: Harper & Row, 1985.

External links[edit]

• Jewish Holidays Online List of all Jewish holidays for the current year (or any given year)
• Jewish holiday calendars & Hebrew date converter. Hebcal home page. Interactive Jewish calendar with candle lighting times and Torah readings.
• Jewish Holidays Hebcal. Major and Minor holidays and fasts for 6 Jewish year
• Four-year calendar of major Jewish holidays; Summary Explanation of the Jewish Holidays. JewishColumbus
• Jewish Holidays. Upcoming Holidays, links to others; at Orthodox Union.
• JewishGen Jewish Festival Dates calculator of the dates of Jewish holidays
• Jewish Holidays: A Primer Patheos
• What are the main Jewish festivals? BBC

Еврейские праздники (ивр. хагим, моадим) — знаменательные даты еврейского календаря, в которые запрещен траур и в которые предписывается устраивать церемониальные трапезы (все праздники, кроме праздника Йом Кипур), и произносить восхвалительную молитву Алель (кроме Йом Кипура, Рош аШана и Пурима). Каждый праздник в иудаизме имеет особые, характерные только ему, заповеди и ритуалы, предписанные Торой, мудрецами либо заведенными обычаями. Некоторые дни еврейских праздников отмечены так же запретом на некоторые виды работ.

Оглавление

Виды еврейских праздников ^[↑]

Еврейские праздники можно подразделить на три основные категории:

1. Праздники, установленные Торой
2. Праздники, введенные мудрецами, с установленными заповедями и обязанностями
3. Праздники, в которые нет обязательных заповедей, а только обычаи.

К первой группе наряду с субботой относятся три паломнических праздника — Песах, Шавуот и Сукот, судные дни — Рош аШана (Новый год) и Йом Кипур (День Искупления), а также Рош Ходеш (Новомесячье, он же день новолуния). Вторая группа праздников включает Пурим и Хануку. К третьей категории относятся Ту биАв (Пятнадцатое Ава), Ту биШват (пятнадцатое Швата — Новый год деревьев), а также Лаг баОмэр (33 день Омера).

Наряду с этим, существуют памятные дни, принятые в той или иной общине в память о чудесных событиях, свидетелями которых были только члены этой общины (Мимуна, местные Пуримы и др.).

Еврейский праздник Сукот

Смысл еврейских праздников ^[↑]

Задача еврейских праздников закрепить в коллективном сознании народа исторические события, имеющие национальную, религиозную, или мировоззренческую важность. Каждый праздник, с сопутствующими ему ритуалами, заставляет заново погрузиться и пережить исторические события, в память о которых он был установлен.

События праздников несут в себе определенное послание, обучающее определенному аспекту веры и еврейского мировоззрения. Таким образом праздник Песах принято называть праздником веры («хаг Аэмуна»), поскольку события исхода, укрепляют веру в единого Б-га, а также доказывают Его контроль над миром. Праздник Сукот именуется праздником упования («хаг Абитахон»), т.к. заповедь нахождения в Суке, установленная в память о чуде «Облаков славы», укрепляет веру во всемогущество Творца и Его заботу обеспечить людей всем необходимым.

В Пуриме заключено послание, что даже за видом обычных событий не выходящих за рамки законов природы, стоит высшая сила. Ханука учит, что в борьбе за духовное спасение народа, даже горстка людей может одолеть сильнейшую армию мира.

Рамхаль (раби Моше Хаим Луцато) в книге Дэрех Ашем пишет, что даты еврейских праздников несут в себе духовный свет, на подобие того, который пролился во времена событий праздников.

Шабат, Йом тов, Холь амоэд ^[↑]

Большинство праздников еврейского календаря имеют ограничения на выполнение работ. По мере строгости наказания, а также по виду ограничений все праздники делятся на три категории: Шабат (еврейская Суббота), Йом тов (собственно праздничный день) и Холь аМоэд (т.н. полу-праздничные дни в течение праздничной недели Песаха или Сукота).

В Шабат и в Йом Кипур запрещены 39 работ, даже когда в этом есть необходимость для приготовления пищи.

В Йом тов так же запрещается выполнять 39 работ, но разрешается выполнять некоторые работы ради приготовления пищи. Йом товом являются: первый и последние дни Песаха и Сукота, праздник Шавуот и два дня Рош аШана.

Дни в промежутке между двумя Йом товами в Песах и Сукот называются Холь аМоэд и, как мы говорили выше, являются полу-праздничными днями. В эти дни разрешены некоторые виды работ, необходимые для нужд праздника, а также для предотвращения какого-либо ущерба. Профессиональная работа запрещена в любом случае.

Йом тов шени ^[↑]

В диаспоре к каждому из праздничных дней — дней Йом тов (за исключением Йом Кипур) — добавляют дополнительный праздничный день, в который действует такое же ограничение работ, как и в первый йом тов. На иврите этот добавочный день называется «йом тов шени шел галуйот», буквально — «второй праздничный день рассеяния».

Эта практика возникла, чтобы предотвратить в общинах рассеяния неясность относительно точного дня, в который Санедрин (Высший еврейский Суд) объявлял начало нового месяца. Впоследствии начало месяца уже стали устанавливать на основании астрономических вычислений, но законоучители постановили сохранить этот обычай.

Рош аШана же является двухдневным праздником даже в Эрец Исраэль.

Веселье в праздник ^[↑]

В еврейские праздники, главным образом в Йом тов, предписывается радоваться. Мужчинам предписывается в праздники есть мясо и пить вино, а женщинам покупать к празднику новые одежды — все это призвано помочь в достижении полноценного ощущения радости.

В Шабат нет заповеди радоваться, но есть запрет на траур, а также есть особая заповедь, введенная еще ранними пророками — наслаждаться в субботний день — Онег Шабат. Еврейские мудрецы во все времена строго следили, чтобы празднества не выходили за рамки дозволенных законом.

Пятикнижие предписывает в дни праздников радовать неимущих, и указывает, чтобы не забывали левита, прозелита, сироту или вдову (Дварим 16:11, 14). В преддверии праздников существует обычай давать цдаку (пожертвование) нуждающимся.

Три праздника паломничества: Песах, Шавуот, Сукот ^[↑]

В Торе три праздника — Песах, Шавуот, Сукот — определены в одну группу, вместе эти три праздника называют «Шалош регалим», т.е. «три паломничества»(Шмот 23:14). Дело в том, что в эти три праздника есть обязанность на каждом еврее «подняться» в Иерусалим и принести в Храме специальную жертву паломника. Как объясняют святые книги, суть паломничества в Иерусалим заключалась в том, чтобы жители страны могли духовно подзарядиться от центра еврейской религиозной жизни и священного для всех евреев места — Иерусалимского Храма. Кроме того, контакт с населением святого города, которое составляли в основном служители Храма и мудрецы Торы, должен был положительно отразиться на паломниках. На сегодняшний день многие евреи диаспоры, добровольно продолжают древнюю традицию, стараясь посетить святой город в течении трех этих праздников.

Наряду с историко-теологической мотивацией трех праздников паломничества, обнаруживается их связь с годовым сельскохозяйственным циклом. Так, Шавуот в Торе называется «хаг аБикурим» — праздник первых плодов, Сукот — «хаг аАсиф» — праздник сбора урожая, завершающий сельскохозяйственный год, Песах — «хаг аАвив» — праздник весны и начала жатвы. На второй день праздника Песах совершалось приношение ячменя (минхат аОмэр), после чего разрешалось употребление нового урожая зерна.

Список основных праздничных дат ^[↑]

Шабат — суббота, является еженедельным еврейским праздником и днем отдыха, установленный в память о седьмом дне, в который Творец пребывал в покое после шести дней творения. Шабат равносилен всем заповедям, т.к. является манифестом веры в создание мира. В Шабат запрещено совершать 39 запрещенных работ, которые использовались во время строительства скинии Завета в пустыне.

Рош Ходеш — день новолуния, знаменующий начало нового еврейского месяца. Все время, пока существовал Санедрин, день новолуния определялся живым свидетельством о появлении на небе серпа новой луны и являлся отправной точкой для вычисления календарной даты последующих праздников. Сегодня Рош Ходеш привязан к астрономическому календарю.

Выпечка мацы к празднику Песах

Песах (15 Нисана — 22 Нисана) отмечается в течении семи дней, в память о выходе евреев из египетского рабства. Для Песаха характерен запрет на употребление квасного. В первый день праздника заповедано есть Пасхальную жертву (но только во времена Храма), рассказывать о выходе из Египта, есть мацу (пресный хлеб) и марор (горькая зелень). Первый и седьмой день праздника является Йом товом — днем, когда запрещено совершать работу, несвязанную с приготовлением пищи.

Лаг-Баомер (18 Ияара) — 33-й день отсчета Омера — отмечается как годовщина кончины великого мудреца рабби Шимона Бар Йохая (Рашби). Этот день также связан с прекращением вспыхнувшей эпидемии, унесшей жизнь 24 тысяч учеников рабби Акивы. Празднование этого дня в виде разжигания костров было введено кабалистами.

Шавуот (6 Сивана) отмечается устной традицией как день дарования Торы. Так же является Йом товом. Во времена существования Храма в этот день приносили в Храм первые плоды деревьев.

Рош аШана (1-2 Тишрея) — еврейский Новый год, Судный день, в более глубоком смысле — день инаугурации Творца. Два дня праздника являются Йом товами — праздничными днями, в которые запрещены траур и выполнение запрещенных работ. В контексте мировой истории этот день отмечен, как день сотворения человека. Характерные обычаи и заповеди — трубление в Шофар (рог) и удлиненные молитвы.

Йом Кипур (10 Тишрея) — день Искупления и день утверждения приговора, вынесенного в Рош аШана. Евреи всего мира проводят этот день в молитвах и посте. Центральной задачей каждого человека в этот день считается совершить раскаяние. В истории еврейского народа этот день отмечен дарованием вторых скрижалей завета, как акт прощения за поклонение золотому тельцу. Уровень запрета на совершение работ в Йом Кипур приравнивается к Шабату.

Сукот (15—23 Тишрея) праздник связан с выходом евреев из Египта. Характерные заповеди — есть и спать в специальном шалаше — Сукка, возносить четыре вида растения (заповедь «нетилат Лулав»). Согласно одному из мнений мудрецов, предписание жить в шалашах установлено в память об «Облаках славы», сопровождавших и оберегавших евреев в пустыне. Первый и последний день праздника являются Йом товом. Пр этом, последний, восьмой день праздника Сукот, выделен в Торе как отдельный праздник — Шмини Ацерэт, в который нет определенных заповедей, кроме заповеди радоваться. Позже мудрецы приурочили к этому дню окончание годового цикла синагогального чтения Недельных глав Торы, превратив его в праздник радости Торы — Симхат Тора.

Ханука (25 Кислева — 2 Тевета) установлен в память о победе Макавеев над греками и евреями-эллинистами в войне за культурно-религиозный вид государства. В дни Хануки произошло чудо храмового семисвечника: масло, которого хватило бы только на один день, горело восемь дней. В память о чуде с маслом и чудесной победе мудрецы заповедовали в течении восьми дней зажигать свечи и читать восхвалительную молитву Алель.

Ту биШват — новый год деревьев, имеет отношение к различным видам отделений, которые должны были отделяться от урожая, выросшего в Святой Земле. Ту биШват является точкой отсчета, после которой завязавшиеся плоды считаются относящимися к урожаю следующего года. В этот день принято есть фрукты, которыми Тора прославляет Израиль.

Пурим (14, 15 Адара) установлен в память о спасении евреев, от попытки тотального истребления Аманом-амалекитянином, главным советником персидского царя Ахашвероша. В этот праздник есть обязанность читать Свиток Эстер, давать подарки бедным и друзьям, а также радоваться, выпив больше привычной нормы.

Особенности праздничных молитв ^[↑]

В преддверии Субботы и праздников, установленных Торой, женщины и девушки зажигают свечи, а мужчины (за исключением Йом Кипур) произносят благословение над вином — Кидуш.

В три паломнических праздника и в другие предписываемые Торой праздники читается особая Амида (однако в Рош Ходеш и в холь аМоэд читается обычная ее форма, лишь добавляется вставка «Яалэ вэяво»).

На Хануку и в Пурим читается вставка «Ал а-нисим» — особая молитва в составе Амиды, в которой перечисляются чудесные деяния Бога, связанные с данным праздником.

За чтением Амиды следует Алель — восхвалительные псалмы. Но в Рош аШана и Йом Кипур, которые являются днями Суда, а так же в Пурим Алель не читается. В Рош Ходеш читается так называемый «половинный» (сокращенный) Алель.

В праздники читают по двум свиткам Торы: первая часть относится к данному празднику, а вторая — к особым жертвоприношениям в этот праздник. Кроме того, в Шавуот читают Книгу Рут, а в Пурим — книгу Эстэр.

Еврейские праздники после прихода Машиаха ^[↑]

В Мидраше (Мишлей 9:2) сказано: «В будущем все праздники будут отменены, но Пурим не будет отменен никогда».

Среди комментаторов нет единого мнения, каким образом следует понимать это высказывание, буквально или же иносказательно.

Согласно части мнений, Мидраш намекает на то, что в будущие времена произойдут великие чудеса, на фоне которых все остальные праздники и события, связанные с ними, померкнут и уйдут на второй план. Но Пурим, который не отличился явными чудесами, выходящими за рамки природы, останется в сознании евреев — как свидетельство того, что Творец контролирует даже естественные события, ведь это будет одинаково актуальным во все времена.

Знаменательные даты еврейского календаря имеют два названия на иврите: «моадим» и «хагим». Оба слова в их современном значении переводятся на русский язык как «праздники». В эти дни устраивают церемониальные трапезы, запрещен траур, существуют ограничения на выполнение различных работ.

Еврейские праздники наполнены радостью и духовным смыслом. Они призваны выделить это время из суеты будничных дней и посвятить его служению Всевышнему.

Главные еврейские праздники

К основным еврейским праздникам относятся:

1. Шаббат – 7-й день недели и один из почитаемых праздников. Это символ союза между еврейским народом и Богом. Отмечается в субботу, как день, когда Всевышний пребывал в покое после того, как 6 дней занимался Сотворением Мира.
2. Рош Ходеш – 1-й день месяца, длится один или два дня. Если месяц состоит из 29 дней, то Новомесячье празднуют один день, если же 30 дней, то два. Евреи читают отдельные псалмы из Аллель и дополнительную молитву Мусаф.
3. Песах – один из основных иудейских праздников. Установлен в память об Исходе еврейского народа из египетского рабства. За пределами Израиля празднование длится 8 дней. В Израиле его отмечают в течение недели. Во время Песах не разрешается есть хлеб и другие мучные продукты, кроме Мацы.
4. Лаг ба-Омер – празднуется в мае. Связан со смертью рабби Шимона бар Йохая (Рашби) – великого учителя и кабалиста. В этот же день прекратилась эпидемия, в результате которой скончалось свыше 24 тысяч учеников рабби Акивы.
5. Шавуот – день дарования Торы. Название можно перевести как «недели». В Шавуот принято учиться всю ночь.
6. Рош а-Шана – еврейский Новый год. Проходят продолжительные молитвы, праздничные застолья, во время которых едят яблоко с медом и другие симаним (знаки). В Рош а-Шана заповедано трубить в Шофар – музыкальный инструмент, выдолбленный из рога животного. Всевышний творит суд над людьми на весь последующий год.
7. Йом-Киппур – так называют день Искупления. Этот еврейский праздник отмечают в сентябре или октябре. Йом-Киппур является завершающим после 10 дней очищения, молитв, раскаяния и отпущения грехов. Выносится окончательный приговор на будущий год. Все евреи постятся и проводят время в синагогах практически весь день.
8. Суккот – один из самых радостных праздников иудаизма. Основная традиция – жить в сукке, покрытом ветками шалаше. Сидеть в Сукке заповедано в память об Облаках Славы, которые защищали евреев от палящего солнца пустыни во время Исхода. За пределами Израиля празднование продолжается девять дней, а в Израиле восемь.
9. Симхат Тора и Шмини Ацерет – последние два дня праздника Суккот, а в Израиле –последний 8-й день. В эти дни действует единственная заповедь – радоваться служению Творцу. В Симхат Тора заканчивают чтение Торы в синагоге, и начинают новый годовой цикл с главы Берешит «В начале».
10. Ханука – ежегодный праздник, отмечаемый в ноябре или декабре, в память о победе Маккавеев над греческими войсками. Тогда же свершилось чудесное событие: храмовый светильник не гас целых восемь дней, хотя масла хватало всего лишь на одни сутки. В память о чуде мудрецы постановили зажигать восьмисвечник в течении всех дней.
11. Ту би-Шват – «Новый год деревьев» и зимний праздник, отмечаемый в феврале или январе. Если плоды завязались после окончания этого праздника, их относят уже урожаю наступившего года. В этот праздничный день принято сажать деревья (это характерно для современного Израиля) и есть плоды, которыми славится земля Израиля. Многие устраивают праздничную трапезу, основные блюда которой –фрукты.
12. Пурим – праздник в память о том, как во время Персидского владычества удалось избежать тотального уничтожения по замыслу главного советника царя – Амана-амалекитянина. Сейчас, отмечая это событие, евреи радуются, дарят подарки и пьют вино больше, чем обычно.

Три разновидности праздников

Каждый из религиозных праздников иудаизма имеет свои традиции, предписанные заповеди или обычаи. Возникли они в разное время и диктовались Торой, великими учителями древности или более поздними обычаями. Есть три основных типа еврейских торжеств и памятных дат:

Рош Ходеш, Йом-Киппур, Рош а-Шана, Шаббат, а также паломнические праздники: Суккот, Шавуот и Песах	Произошли из самой Торой
Ханука и Пурим	Установлены древними учителями
Лаг ба-Омер, Ту би-Шват и Ту би-Ав	Пост-раввинистические праздники, отличительная черта которых – отсутствие обязательных заповедей

Как видно, каждый из трех основных типов соответствуют историческому периоду, когда события стали памятными датами еврейского календаря.

Когда начинаются праздники?

Все еврейские праздники начинаются вечером, с заходом солнца, а не после полуночи, как принято в других религиях и светской жизни. В истории Сотворения Мира, описанной в книге Берешит, сказано: «И был вечер, и было утро, день первый». Отсюда вывод, что день начинается с вечера, то есть с заката. Заканчиваются с появлением трех звезд, то есть в то время, когда стемнеет.

Важно. Чтобы узнать точное время начала и окончания праздника в конкретной местности, необходимо воспользоваться специальным еврейским календарем, актуальным для вашего города.

Работа в праздничные дни

Выделяется три разновидности праздников по строгости ограничений:

• Йом-Киппур и Шаббат – строго запрещены все созидательные виды работ;
• Йом тов – так называют любой праздничный день, в него при определённых условиях разрешено приготовление пищи;
• Холь а-Моэд – полупраздничные дни в течение праздничной недели Песах или Суккот, в них разрешено большинство работ, которые необходимы для проведения праздника.

В список запрещенных работ входят следующие виды деятельности:

• зажигание и тушение огня;
• забивание скота;
• охота;
• шитье;
• стрижка овечьей шерсти;
• выпечка и варка;
• молотьба;
• жатва;
• посадка растений
• и другие.

Важно. Законы субботы и праздников имеют множество нюансов и описаны в специальных книгах. На русском языке ознакомиться с основными законами Шаббата можно в книге рава Моше Понтелята «Царица суббота».

Йом товом считаются следующие дни:

• два дня Рош а-Шана;
• первый (а в диаспоре и второй) день Сукот;
• Шмини Ацерет и Симхат Тора;
• первый (а в диаспоре и второй) и последний (а в диаспоре два последних) день Песаха;
• Шавуот (в диаспоре два дня).

Дополнительный день

Вне Израиля евреи отмечают праздники на день больше, чему есть объяснение. Дополнительный день (Йом тов шени) появился так. По лунному календарю каждый месяц начинается с новолуния. Раньше новые месяцы определялись на основе живого свидетельства о появлении молодой луны на небосводе. Когда приезжал гонец, Сангедрин – верховный орган юридической, религиозной и политической власти, объявлял о начале нового месяца и отправлял посланников, чтобы сообщить людям, когда начинается этот месяц.

Евреи в отдаленных общинах не всегда могли быть уведомлены о новолунии (о первом дне месяца), поэтому они не знали точно, какой день праздновать. Им было известно, что в старом месяце будет 29 или 30 дней, поэтому они отмечали праздники в оба возможных дня.

Эта практика стала обычаем даже после того, как был принят точный астрономический календарь. Дополнительный день не отмечается израильтянами, независимо от того, где они находятся во время праздника, потому что это не обычай их предков. Но он отмечается всеми остальными, даже если они в это время посещают Израиль.

Даты праздников евреев

Ниже приведен список основных праздничных дат на ближайшие пять лет. В таблице даны названия праздников и даты. Первое число обозначает день, второе – месяц, третье – год.

Важно. Все праздники начинаются с заходом солнца за день до указанной даты. Для более точных данных рекомендуется воспользоваться еврейским календарём, актуальным для вашей местности.

Праздник	2020-21 гг.	2021-22 гг.	2022-23 гг.	2023-24 гг.	2024-25 гг.
Рош а-Шана	19.09.20	07.09.21	26.09.22	16.09.23	03.10.24
Йом-Киппур	28.09.20	16.09.21	05.10.22	25.09.23	12.10.24
Суккот	03.10.20	21.09.21	10.10.22	30.09.23	17.10.24
Шмини Ацерет	10.10.20	28.09.21	17.10.22	07.10.23	24.10.24
Симхат Тора	11.10.20	29.09.21	18.10.22	08.10.23	25.10.24
Ханука	11.12.20	29.11.21	19.12.22	08.12.23	26.12.24
Ту би-Шват	28.01.21	17.01.22	06.02.23	25.01.24	13.02.25
Пурим	26.02.21	17.03.22	07.03.23	24.03.24	14.03.25
Песах	28.03.21	16.04.22	06.04.23	23.04.24	13.04.25
Лаг ба-Омер	30.04.21	19.05.22	09.05.23	26.05.24	16.05.25
Шавуот	17.05.21	05.06.22	26.05.23	12.06.24	02.06.25
Ту би-Ав	18.07.21	07.08.22	27.07.23	13.08.24	03.08.25

Несмотря на все перипетии истории еврейскому народу, столетиями следующему заповедям Торы, удается сохранить свои традиции, обычаи и ритуалы. Во многом это благодаря еврейским праздникам, которые возвращают к корням, и не дают забыть чудесные события многовековой еврейской истории.

Еврейские праздники. Их значение и обычаи

Еврейские праздники отмечаются по лунно-солнечному календарю. Он составляется с помощью специальных вычислений, указанных в Торе и учитывающих фазы луны. Поэтому начало каждого еврейского месяца приходится на новолуние.

Все праздники евреев отмечаются особо и имеют тысячелетнюю историю, поэтому соблюдаются еврейским народом с любовью и почтением. А торжественная трапеза всегда состоит из традиционных для каждого праздника блюд.

Значение праздников в жизни евреев

Практически все еврейские праздники упомянуты в Торе. Из светских же праздников особо отмечается только День Независимости.

По сути, еврейский народ сохранил свою целостность именно благодаря религии. И даже сквозь страшные беды и гонения евреи несут свою веру уже тысячи лет с тех самых пор, как получили священные скрижали на горе Синай.

Именно поэтому религиозным праздникам придается такое огромное значение в Израиле и еврейских диаспорах по всему миру. Эти торжества и связанные с ними обычаи помогают народу сохранять единство и общий национальный дух. Каждый год их празднуют как верующие, так и неверующие представители еврейства.

Смысл и философию религиозных праздников наряду со взрослыми постигают и дети. Они всегда бок о бок с родителями на праздничных обрядах и за столом, помогают готовить угощения и вместе распевают праздничные песни.

Сплоченность народа, укрепление единства, сохранение и передача традиций следующим поколениям – вот какое огромное значение имеют для евреев религиозные торжества.

Некоторые праздники и обычаи

Не все праздники евреев сопровождаются весельем. Например, еврейский новый год (Рош ха-Шана) не отмечается плясками и шумными вечеринками. Потому что сразу за ним начинаются 10 дней раскаяния, которые завершает День искупления.

Каждый праздник соответствует важному событию в еврейской истории и отражен в Торе. А традиции празднования создавались веками.

Рассмотрим 11 самых популярных религиозных праздников евреев.

Песах

Песах отмечается в начале весны и длится 7 дней (в диаспорах – 8). Это праздник исхода евреев из Египта, символизирующий освобождение от рабства – не только физического, но и духовного. Перед Песахом в домах уничтожается все квасное: хлеб на закваске, печенье, макароны, водка, пиво и пр.

Основные ритуалы Песаха: праздничный пасхальный седер (трапеза), пресные лепешки (маца) и свежая зелень, которую обмакивают в соленую воду, символизирующую слезы, пролитые евреями в египетском рабстве.

Шавуот

Праздник Шавуот отмечают через 7 недель после Песаха, и именно так переводится его название – «недели». Шавуот – это праздник вручения евреям Торы на горе Синай. Именно Тора, по преданию, является сводом заповедей, по которым надлежит жить всему человечеству.

Главный обычай праздника – слушание Десяти Заповедей. Их читают в синагогах после утренней молитвы. Принято на Шавуот украшать цветами и зеленью дома и синагоги, а застолье начинать с молочной пищи, которая обязательно подается отдельно от мясных блюд.

Суккот

Суккот празднуется ранней осенью, в конце еврейского месяца Тишрей, и называется временем радости. По его обычаю, 7 дней подряд евреи должны жить во временных жилищах с полупрозрачной крышей (ветки или солома), там же спать и трапезничать, с радостью прославляя Всевышнего. Такое жилище носит название «сукка».

Этот обычай говорит о шаткости человеческого мироздания и напоминает, что не у всех людей есть крепкие дома и надо помогать нуждающимся.

Рош ха-Шана

Рош ха-Шана – Новый год (иудейский). Отмечается 1-2 Тишрея как чествование власти Бога над людьми и землей. Именно в это время происходит определение Всевышним судьбы всех народов и каждого отдельного человека на новый год. А праздничные угощения и красивые наряды людей выступают признаками надежды на милость божью.

Трапеза начинается с ломтя хлеба с медом и слов молитвы над кусочком яблока. Традиционные блюда – баранина в память о жертвенном ягненке, а также рыба (в особенности ее голова), чтобы плодиться как рыбы и быть в новом году головой в собственных делах, а не хвостом в делах чужих.

Йом-Кипур

Сразу за Новым годом следуют 10 дней раскаяния, которые завершает Йом-Кипур (День Искупления). Согласно Торе, на Йом-Кипур вступает в силу судьба, определенная людям на предстоящий год.

Перед Йом-Кипуром принято просить прощения у тех, кого довелось обидеть. Накануне праздника или утром на рассвете совершают обряд капарот, когда зарезанную курицу или ее стоимость отдают бедным после специальной молитвы. Этот обряд символизирует желание искупить грехи.

Рош Ходеш

Название этого праздника евреев переводится как «голова месяца». Рош Ходеш отмечается в первый день каждого месяца, что совпадает с новолунием. Это время евреи считают особенным, потому что именно новая луна дает старт отсчету праздничных дней.

Перед праздником Рош Ходеш благочестивые люди постятся и просят Всевышнего о прощении грехов. По обычаю, женщины в этот день почти не делают домашних дел, чтобы выделить праздник среди будней. Вечером за трапезой на стол ставится дополнительное блюдо в честь Рош Ходеша, читаются специальные молитвы.

Пурим

Пурим – это торжество веселья, символизирующее спасение евреев от истребления во время правления персидского царя Артаксеркса и победу над злобным Аманом, который мечтал изгнать еврейский народ.

На Пурим принято готовить треугольное печенье, называемое «уши Амана», много веселиться и даже употреблять спиртное. В синагогах проходит чтение Книги Эстер, а верующие соблюдают пост Эстер. Также на Пурим принято дарить «подарки бедным», их должно быть не меньше двух.

Ханука

Ханука отмечается 25 числа месяца Кислев (обычно в начале декабря). Это праздник зажигания свечей, что символизирует победу света над тьмой и духовности над материализмом. Символы праздника – ханукальные светильники (ханукии), на которых зажигается по одной дополнительной свече в каждый день праздника. Обычно ханукии располагают у окна, чтобы огни были заметны снаружи.

Традиционные блюда на Хануку – оладьи из картофеля (латкес) и пончики. Также принято готовить блюда из молока и сыра. На Хануку взрослые щедро дают детям ханукальные деньги на мелкие расходы.

Ту-Бе Ав

Ту-Бе Ав празднуют 15 Ава и называют «Днем любви». По легенде, в эту дату незамужние девушки выходили танцевать в виноградники, и туда же отправлялись свободные юноши, чтобы выбрать себе невесту.

15-го Ава дни становятся короче, а ночи – длиннее, поэтому традиции завещают больше времени уделять изучению Торы, ведь «ночь создана для учения». Также этот день называют «праздником грядущего Освобождения», но никаких особых обычаев Талмуд для него не устанавливает.

Ту би-Шват

Новый Год деревьев (Ту би-Шват) выпадает на конец января – начало февраля, когда в Израиле начинается пробуждение всего живого после зимы. Формально этот праздник разделяет прошлогодний и будущий урожай и означает дату, когда нужно отделять десятину от прошлого урожая и раздавать ее малоимущим.

Традиционное угощение в этот день – фрукты, выросшие на святой земле Израиля, – виноград, финики, гранаты и пр. Обычаи предписывают употреблять также 4 бокала вина и уделить время изучению Торы.

Лаг ба-Омер

Лаг ба-Омер отмечают в 33-й день между Песахом и Шавуотом. На него снимаются все ограничения и посты. По традиции, евреи в честь этого праздника устраивают пикники, стреляют из лука и жгут костры. Огонь костров символизирует свет, который принес в мир легендарный Рабби Шимон, автор книги о духовном пути «Зоар», что переводится как «сияние».

Считается, что Рабби Шимон умер именно в этот день, оставив после себя книгу-инструкцию, которая освещает путь верующих.

Все праздники евреев сопровождаются церемониальными трапезами, специальными молитвами, особыми заповедями и ритуалами, которые предписывает Тора, мудрецы или народные обычаи. Большинство праздников устанавливают запрет или ограничение на работу.

В целом, еврейские праздники, которыми равномерно пронизан весь календарный год, позволяют людям в череде мирских забот не забывать о национальном единстве, о своих предках, не отходить от духовной жизни и всегда помнить о ближних.

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